Detection and molecular analysis of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum from dogs with neurological disorders

INTRODUCTION: Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum are related Apicomplexa parasites responsible for systemic diseases in many species of animals, including dogs. METHODS: This study aimed to determine the occurrence of T. gondii and N. caninum infections in 50 dogs with neurological signs that were admitted to the Veterinary Hospital of Universidade Estadual Paulista, City of Botucatu, Brazil. All animals were screened for antibodies using an immunofluorescent antibody test for both parasites. Tissues of positive animals were bioassayed in mice (T. gondii) and gerbils (N. caninum), and DNA was analyzed using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Positive samples for T. gondii by PCR were typed using restriction fragment length polymorphism-PCR for 11 markers: SAG1, SAG2 (5′-3′-SAG2 and alt.SAG2), SAG3, Btub, GRA6, L358, c22-8, c29-6, PK1 and Apico, and CS3 marker for virulence analysis. RESULTS: Specific antibodies were detected in 11/50 (22%; 95% confidence interval (CI95%), 12.8-35.3%) animals for T. gondii and 7/50 (14%; CI95%, 7.02-26.3%) for N. caninum. In the bioassay and PCR, 7/11 (63.6%; CI95%, 34.9-84.8%) samples were positive for T. gondii and 3/7 (42.9%; CI95%I, 15.7-75.5%) samples were positive for N. caninum. Three different genotypes were identified, but only 1 was unique. CONCLUSIONS: These data confirm the presence of T. gondii and N. caninum in dogs from Brazil, indicating the importance of this host as a sentinel of T. gondii for human beings, and the genotypic variation of this parasite in Brazil.

Liver fibrosis progression in HIV/hepatitis C virus coinfected patients with normal aminotransferases levels

INTRODUCTION: Approximately 30% of hepatitis C virus (HCV) monoinfected patients present persistently normal alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels. Most of these patients have a slow progression of liver fibrosis. Studies have demonstrated the rate of liver fibrosis progression in hepatitis C virus-human immunodeficiency virus (HCV-HIV) coinfected patients is faster than in patients infected only by HCV. Few studies have evaluated the histological features of chronic hepatitis C in HIV-infected patients with normal ALT levels. METHODS: HCV-HIV coinfected patients (HCV-RNA and anti-HIV positive) with known time of HCV infection (intravenous drugs users) were selected. Patients with hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) positive or hepatitis C treatment before liver biopsy were excluded. Patients were considered to have a normal ALT levels if they had at least 3 normal determinations in the previous 6 months prior to liver biopsy. All patients were submitted to liver biopsy and METAVIR scale was used. RESULTS: Of 50 studied patients 40 (80%) were males. All patients were treated with antiretroviral therapy. The ALT levels were normal in 13 (26%) patients. HCV-HIV co-infected patients with normal ALT levels had presented means of the liver fibrosis stages (0.77±0.44 versus 1.86±1.38; p<0.001) periportal inflammatory activity (0.62±0.77 versus 2.24±1.35; p<0.001) and liver fibrosis progression rate (0.058±0.043 fibrosis unit/year versus 0.118±0.102 fibrosis unit/year) significantly lower as compared to those with elevated ALT. CONCLUSIONS: HCV-HIV coinfected patients with persistently normal ALTs showed slower progression of liver fibrosis. In these patients the development of liver cirrhosis is improbable.

Clinical and hepatic evaluation in adult dengue patients: a prospective two-month cohort study

INTRODUCTION: To analyze the liver dysfunction and evolution of signs and symptoms in adult dengue patients during a two-month follow-up period. METHODS: A prospective cohort study was conducted in Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from January to July, 2008. The evolution of laboratory and clinical manifestations of 90 adult dengue patients was evaluated in five scheduled visits within a two-month follow-up period. Twenty controls were enrolled for the analysis of liver function. Patients with hepatitis B, hepatitis C, those known to be human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) seropositive and pregnant women were excluded from the study. RESULTS: At the end of the second month following diagnosis, we observed that symptoms persisted in 33.3% (30/90) of dengue patients. We also observed that, 57.7% (15/26) of the symptoms persisted at the end of the second month. The most persistent symptoms were arthralgia, fatigue, weakness, adynamia, anorexia, taste alteration, and hair loss. Prior dengue virus (DENV) infection did not predispose patients to a longer duration of symptoms. Among hepatic functions, transaminases had the most remarkable elevation and in some cases remained elevated up to the second month after the disease onset. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels overcame aspartate aminotransferase (AST) during the convalescent period. Male patients were more severely affected than females. CONCLUSIONS: Dengue fever may present a wide number of symptoms and elevated liver transaminases at the end of the second month.

Toll-like receptor 3 gene polymorphisms are not associated with the risk of hepatitis B and hepatitis C virus infection

INTRODUCTION: The present study investigated the prevalence of two single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) gene in patients infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). METHODS: Samples collected from HCV (n = 74) and HBV (n = 35) carriers were subjected to quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) to detect the presence of the SNPs rs5743305 and rs3775291 in TLR3 and to measure the following biomarkers: alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), and prothrombin time (PT). A healthy control group was investigated and consisted of 299 HCV- and HBV-seronegative individuals. RESULTS: No significant differences in allele, genotype and haplotype frequencies were observed between the investigated groups, and no association was observed between the polymorphisms and histopathological results. Nevertheless, genotypes TA/AA (rs5743305) and GG (rs3775291) appear to be associated with higher levels of ALT (p<0.01), AST (p<0.05) and PT (p<0.05). In addition, genotypes TT (rs5743305; p<0.05) and GG (rs3775291; p<0.05) were associated with higher GGT levels. CONCLUSIONS: This genetic analysis revealed the absence of an association between the polymorphisms investigated and susceptibility to HBV and HCV infection; however, these polymorphisms might be associated with a greater degree of biliary damage during the course of HCV infection.

Occult HBV infection status among chronic hepatitis C and hemodialysis patients in Northeastern Egypt: regional and national overview

INTRODUCTION: Occult hepatitis B infection (OBI) is considered to be one of the major risks for patients suffering from end-stage renal disease (ESRD) on regular hemodialysis (HD) and patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. This study compared the prevalence of OBI among these two high-risk groups in the Suez Canal region, Northeastern Egypt, to obtain a better national overview of the magnitude of OBI in this region. METHODS: Serum samples were collected from 165 HD patients and 210 chronic HCV-infected patients. Anti-HCV antibody, hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), total hepatitis B core (anti-HBc) antibody, and hepatitis B surface antibody (anti-HBs) were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). HCV RNA was detected using a quantitative real-time RT-PCR assay, and HBV was detected using a nested PCR. RESULTS: All patients were negative for HBsAg. A total of 49.1% and 25.2% of the patients in the HD and HCV groups, respectively, were anti-HBc-positive. In addition, more anti-HBs-positive patients were detected in the HD group compared to the HCV group (52.1% and 11.4%, respectively). Three cases were positive for HBV DNA in the HD group, while eighteen positive cases were detected in the HCV group. Both study groups showed significant differences in serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) level as well as anti-HBc, anti-HBs and HBV-DNA positivity. CONCLUSIONS: OBI was more prevalent among chronic HCV patients than HD patients in the Suez Canal region, Egypt, with rates of 8.5% and 1.8%, respectively. However, more precise assessment of this infection requires regular patient follow-up using HBV DNA detection methods.

Epidemiological aspects of Toxoplasma gondii infection in riverside communities in the Southern Brazilian Amazon

INTRODUCTION: Toxoplasma gondii infection is widely prevalent in humans and other animals worldwide. Information on the prevalence of T. gondii infection is scarce in some regions of Brazil, including riverside communities along the Amazon River basin. M METHODS: The prevalence of T. gondii in 231 people, aged 1-85 years, who were living in four riverside communities along the Purus River, Lábrea, State of Amazonas, Brazil, was determined. Antibodies against T. gondii were assayed using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. The hearts and brains of 50 chickens, which were raised free-range in the communities, were pooled according to the community of origin and bioassayed in mice. The isolates were genotyped using polymorphisms at 12 nuclear markers (SAG1, 5' and 3'-SAG2, alt.SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, Apico and CS3). RESULTS: The overall seroprevalence of T. gondii was 56.7% (131/231). IgG antibodies were presented by 117 (89.3%) and IgM by 14 (10.7%) of the 131 positive individuals. No association between age group and gender with prevalence was observed (chi-square test, p > 0.05); however, the comparison between localities showed that the seroprevalence of T. gondii was significantly lower among the individuals living in the Boca do Ituxi (p < 0.05) community. Five isolates of T. gondii were obtained in the mouse bioassay, and genotyping revealed two complete genotypes that had not been described previously and three mixed isolates. CONCLUSIONS: These results support previous findings that T. gondii population genetics are highly diverse in Brazil and that T. gondii infection is active in these riverside communities.

Clinical and epidemiological profile of female blood donors with positive serology for viral hepatitis B

ABSTRACTINTRODUCTION:Since women are frequently the minority among blood donors worldwide, studies evaluating this population usually reflect male features. We assessed the features of female blood donors with positive serology for HBV and compared them with those of men.METHODS The study comprised consecutive blood donors referred to a specialized liver disease center to be evaluated due to HBsAg- and/or anti-HBc-positive tests.RESULTS: The study encompassed 1,273 individuals, 219 (17.2%) of whom were referred due to positive HBsAg test and 1,054 (82.8%) due to reactive anti-HBc test. Subjects' mean age was 36.8±10.9 years, and 28.7% were women. Female blood donors referred for positive HBsAg screening tests demonstrated higher prevalence of healthcare workers (9.3% vs 2.5%) and lower prevalence of sexual risk behaviors (15.1% vs 41.1%) and alcohol abuse (1.9% vs 19.8%) compared to men. Women had lower ALT (0.6 vs 0.8×ULN), AST (0.6 vs 0.8×ULN), direct bilirubin (0.2 vs 0.3mg/dL), and alkaline phosphatase (0.5 vs 0.6×ULN) levels and higher platelet count (223,380±50,293 vs 195,020±53,060/mm3). Women also had a higher prevalence of false-positive results (29.6% vs 17.0%). No differences were observed with respect to liver biopsies. Female blood donors referenced for reactive anti-HBc screening tests presented similar clinical, epidemiological, and biochemical characteristics to those reported for positive HBsAg screening tests and similarly had a higher prevalence of false-reactive results.CONCLUSIONS: Compared to men, female blood donors with positive HBsAg and/or anti-HBc screening tests demonstrated higher prevalence of professional risk and false-positive results and reduced alteration of liver chemistry.

Periodicidade e escolha de exames laboratoriais na terapia hipolipemiante

Intervenções farmacológicas com hipolipemiantes devem ser monitoradas periodicamente para avaliar eficácia e parâmetros de segurança. As estatinas são drogas normalmente bem toleradas e os seus principais efeitos colaterais incluem aumento das enzimas hepáticas (AST e ALT) e muscular (CK). O tratamento deve ser interrompido ou diminuído no caso de um aumento significativo das AST ou ALT (> 3x LSN), ou CK (> 10x LSN). Outros agentes hipolipemiantes também podem produzir hepatotoxicidade ou miosite, fibratos e ácido nicotínico, especialmente em associação com as estatinas ou na presença de anormalidades metabólicas (tireoidite, hepatopatia e nefropatia). Ácido nicotínico pode também aumentar os níveis plasmáticos de glicose e ácido úrico. Testes laboratoriais podem ser utilizados no seguimento da terapia hipolipemiante e devem ser repetidos a cada três meses durante o primeiro ano e então em intervalos de seis meses. Intervalos menores são recomendados para casos especiais.

Mecanismos de hepatotoxicidade

Hepatopatia relacionada ao uso de drogas hipolipemiantes tem sido definida como um dano celular (aumento das enzimas AST e ALT) sem alterações colestáticas (aumento de bilirrubinas e/ou fosfatase alcalina). Seis mecanismos são propostos para a hepatopatia: 1. Reações de alta energia no citocromo P450 comprometendo a homeostase do cálcio com a ruptura de fibrilas intracelulares e lise de hepatócitos. 2. Disfunção de proteínas transportadoras relacionadas com o fluxo de ácidos biliares (mecanismo proposto para a toxicidade hepática dos fibratos). 3. Reações imunes geradas pela formação de metabólitos das drogas hipolipemiantes formados no fígado. 4. Hepatoxicidade promovida por células T com inflamação adicional mediada por neutrófilos. 5. Apoptose mediada por TNF e Fas (imune-mediada). 6. Estresse oxidativo gerado por dano a organelas intracelulares. Ainda, idade avançada, consumo excessivo de álcool, altas doses de drogas hipolipemiantes, interação com outros fármacos, e doença hepática ativa prévia podem aumentar a hepatotoxidade.

Efeitos do exercício agudo na lipemia pós-prandial em homens sedentários

OBJETIVO: Examinar os efeitos de uma sessão isolada de exercício físico isométrico na trigliceridemia pós-prandial em homens sedentários com valores de triglicérides em jejum < 150 mg/dl (NTG) ou > 150 mg/dl (TG ALT). MÉTODOS: Foram avaliados 27 indivíduos (10 NTG e 17 TG ALT), com idade entre trinta e 55 anos. Os triglicérides foram determinados no início, e após duas, quatro e seis horas da ingestão oral de uma solução com 50g/m² de gordura em duas oportunidades, em repouso e após exercício isométrico em esteira. RESULTADOS: O exercício agudo não modificou os níveis pós-prandiais de triglicérides, ou a área sob a curva (AUC) de triglicérides. Entretanto, o padrão anormal da curva de lipemia pós-prandial associou-se a maior trigliceridemia basal com exercício (TG basais: 147 ± 90 versus 238 ± 89 mg/dl, p = 0,02) e sem exercício (TG basais: 168 ± 93 versus 265 ± 140 mg/dl, p = 0,04). A análise das curvas ROC (receive operating characteristics) mostrou valores de corte de triglicérides basais com atividade física de 166,5 mg/dl (sensibilidade: 0,78; especificidade: 0,72) e AUC de 0,772 [IC 95%: 0,588-0,955], e sem atividade física de 172 mg/dl (sensibilidade: 0,78; especificidade: 0,61) e AUC de 0,722 [IC 95%: 0,530-0,914]. CONCLUSÃO: A trigliceridemia pós-prandial em homens sedentários não foi modificada pelo exercício agudo, sendo os valores basais de triglicérides preditores de uma resposta anormal dos triglicérides pós-prandiais.

Avaliação clínica e laboratorial hepática em indivíduos com insuficiência cardíaca congestiva

OBJETIVOS: Verificar o perfil de alterações clínicas e, principalmente, laboratoriais hepáticas observadas em pacientes de cada uma das classes de insuficiência cardíaca. MÉTODOS: Por meio de um estudo seccional, foram pesquisados os dados clínicos e laboratoriais (alanina aminotransferase [ALT], aspartato aminotransferase [AST], fosfatase alcalina [FA], gama-glutamil transpeptidase [gama-GT], bilirrubinas e coagulograma) de 50 pacientes internados em 2002 em um hospital terciário com diagnóstico de insuficiência cardíaca. Os doentes foram separados de acordo com sua classe de insuficiência cardíaca e seus dados, comparados estatisticamente. Foram excluídos pacientes com hepatopatia de qualquer etiologia. RESULTADOS: A análise das médias de transaminases revelou aumento significativo apenas nos pacientes da classe IV. Por outro lado, a FA e a gama-GT apresentaram aumento progressivo de acordo com a classe de insuficiência cardíaca. CONCLUSÃO: A insuficiência cardíaca é caracterizada por perfil colestático progressivo de alterações laboratoriais, enquanto as transaminases se elevam apenas na insuficiência cardíaca mais avançada. O entendimento dessas alterações é fundamental para que se evite investigação hepática desnecessária em indivíduos com insuficiência cardíaca.

Obesidade abdominal, resistência à insulina e hipertensão: impacto sobre a massa e a função do ventrículo esquerdo em mulheres

OBJETIVO: Avaliar a relação da obesidade central, hiperinsulinemia e hipertensão arterial (HA) com a massa e a geometria do ventrículo esquerdo em mulheres. MÉTODOS: Foram avaliadas 70 mulheres (35 a 68 anos), divididas em quatro grupos de acordo com a presença de obesidade central e hipertensão arterial. Determinou-se a área de gordura visceral. A glicose e insulina plasmáticas foram determinadas antes e 2 h após uma sobrecarga oral de 75 g de glicose. Realizada avaliação cardiológica. RESULTADOS: Comparado ao grupo NT-OB, o grupo HT-OB apresentou insulinemia mais elevada no TOTG de 2 h (127,5 ± 73,0 vs 86,8 ± 42,7 µU/ml; p = 0,05) e menor relação onda E/A (0,8 ± 0,1 vs 1.2 ± 0,3; p < 0,05). Comparado ao grupo NT-NO, o grupo HT-NO apresentou insulinemia elevada antes da sobrecarga de glicose (7,46 ± 3,1 vs 4,32 ± 2,1 µU/ml; p < 0,05), maior índice HOMA-r (1,59 ± 0,72 vs 0,93 ± 0,48 mmol.mU/l²; p = 0,006), maior leptinemia (19,1 ± 9,6 vs 7,4 ± 3,5 ng/ml; p = 0,028), maior área de GV (84,40 ± 55,7 vs 37,50 ± 23,0 cm²; p = 0,036), maior EDSIV (9,6 ± 1,2 vs 8,2 ± 1,7 mm; p < 0,05) e maior MVE/alt (95,8 ± 22,3 vs 78,4 ± 15,5 g/m; p < 0.05). Uma análise de regressão linear múltipla revelou impacto da idade, IMC e glicemia de jejum sobre MVE/altura (R² = 0,59; p<0,05). CONCLUSÃO: Nossos resultados indicam uma associação entre HA, obesidade central e hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, resultante de ativação simpática e resistência à insulina.

Estradiol transdérmico e perfil lipídico: efeitos em um grupo específico de mulheres brasileiras pós-menopausadas

FUNDAMENTO: Em mulheres pós-menopausadas, mudanças significantes ocorrem, que podem induzir doenças cardiovasculares, tais como o perfil lipídico aterogênico devido a um aumento nos níveis de colesterol total e LDL, e uma diminuição nos níveis de HDL. A terapia de reposição hormonal (TRH) pode evitar essas mudanças no perfil lipídico. OBJETIVO: Determinar os efeitos da TRH constituída por estradiol transdérmico e acetato de medroxiprogesterona nos parâmetros bioquímicos e lipídicos de mulheres brasileiras pós-menopausadas. MÉTODOS: Este é um estudo prospectivo, longitudinal, aberto, no qual trinta mulheres pós-menopausadas receberam estradiol em gel transdérmico (1 mg/dia) de forma contínua, combinado com acetato de medroxiprogesterona (MPA) (5 mg/dia) por 12 dias/mês. Os seguintes parâmetros foram determinados: colesterol total, triglicérides, lipoproteína de alta densidade (HDL-colesterol), lipoproteína de baixa densidade (LDL-colesterol), lipoproteína de muito baixa densidade (VLDL-colesterol), glicose, aspartato aminotransferase (AST), alanina aminotransferase (ALT), gama-glutamil transferase (GGT) e hormônio folículo estimulante (FSH). RESULTADOS: Os parâmetros do perfil lipídico mostraram uma diminuição não-significante, enquanto os níveis de GGT e FSH apresentaram uma diminuição estatisticamente significante. CONCLUSÕES: O tratamento com estradiol em gel transdérmico não mostrou um impacto significante no perfil lipídico, de forma que não resultou em um efeito benéfico nos marcadores de doenças cardiovasculares, sugerindo que a dose, modo de administração e o tempo de tratamento foram importantes para esses resultados. Além disso, o tratamento com dose baixa e modo de administração transdérmico também demonstrou um significante efeito hepático nessa população. Dessa forma, esse tratamento pode fornecer efeitos interessantes sobre o perfil lipídico em mulheres brasileiras pós-menopausadas.

Effect of Pitavastatin on Vascular Reactivity in Hypercholesterolemic Rabbits

Background: Pitavastatin is the newest statin available in Brazil and likely the one with fewer side effects. Thus, pitavastatin was evaluated in hypercholesterolemic rabbits in relation to its action on vascular reactivity. Objective: To assess the lowest dose of pitavastatin necessary to reduce plasma lipids, cholesterol and tissue lipid peroxidation, as well as endothelial function in hypercholesterolemic rabbits. Methods: Thirty rabbits divided into six groups (n = 5): G1 - standard chow diet; G2 - hypercholesterolemic diet for 30 days; G3 - hypercholesterolemic diet and after the 16th day, diet supplemented with pitavastatin (0.1 mg); G4 - hypercholesterolemic diet supplemented with pitavastatin (0.25 mg); G5 - hypercholesterolemic diet supplemented with pitavastatin (0.5 mg); G6 - hypercholesterolemic diet supplemented with pitavastatin (1.0 mg). After 30 days, total cholesterol, HDL, triglycerides, glucose, creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) were measured and LDL was calculated. In-depth anesthesia was performed with sodium thiopental and aortic segments were removed to study endothelial function, cholesterol and tissue lipid peroxidation. The significance level for statistical tests was 5%. Results: Total cholesterol and LDL were significantly elevated in relation to G1. HDL was significantly reduced in G4, G5 and G6 when compared to G2. Triglycerides, CK, AST, ALT, cholesterol and tissue lipid peroxidation showed no statistical difference between G2 and G3-G6. Significantly endothelial dysfunction reversion was observed in G5 and G6 when compared to G2. Conclusion: Pitavastatin starting at a 0.5 mg dose was effective in reverting endothelial dysfunction in hypercholesterolemic rabbits.

Os grandes clímaces do Brasil: I - considerações sôbre os tipos vegetativos da região sul

Der Autor schlaegt eine Unterteilung der Vegetation vor, die sich auf die grossen Landschaftstypen Brasiliens bezieht. Er grenzt diese gegeneinander ab und beschreibt sie in grossen Zuegen, soweit sie bis heute bekannt sind. Er bringt einige Komentare zur Phytoklimatologie und zeigt, dass die Versuche einer floristischen Einteilung auf klimatischer Grundlage nichtbefriedigend sind; er laesst den "Klimax" nur zu als Annahme des maximalen Ausdrucks der Vegetation innerhalb eines begrenzten Gebiets. Ers bespricht kurz die regionalen geomorphologischen Studien und beschreibt zum Schluss jeden phyto-oekologischen Typ. Er beleuchtet in den Beschreibungen alle historischen Moeglichkeiten, wobei er sich auf die palaeo-Oekologie und Phylogenese stuetzt. In Suedbrasilien finden wir, abgesehen von den Waeldern der immerfeuchten Regenzonen, den Cerrado und den Campo und neben diesen den Wald der periodisch trockenen Klimate. Der Autor weist daraufhin, dass die Ausbreitung der Formationen mehr an den "Raum" als an die "Zeit" gebunden sind, dieses will besagen, dass in juengst bewachsenen Gebieten der Wald sich in jeder Richtung ausdehnt und in alt bewachsenen Regionen mit tiefen Boeden der Cerrado und in solchen mit flachen Boeden der Campo sich allseits ausbreiten. 1. Der Laubwald, der sich wahrscheinlich seit der juengeren Pluvialzeit ausbreitet, befidet sich heute noch in voller Taetigkeit: a) der Wald der Abhaenge der kristalinen Gebirge der Sued-Atlantikkueste, der schattige Haenge bedeckt und durch cyophile und phylogenetisch primitive Elemente gekennzeichnet ist, scheint die aeltere Ausbreitung darzustellen; und b) der Wald der Einzugsbecken und Kuestenebenen, der die aluvialen Gelaende einnimmt und durch heliophile und hoeher entwickelte Arten charakterisiert ist, scheint die modernere Ausbreitung zu vertreten. 2. Der Nadelwald, der dem Einzugsnetz der Hochflaech folgend sich in relativ neuer Zeit ausgebreitet hat, befindet sich ebenfalls auch heute noch in voller Taetigkeit: a) in Gebieten der Campos, neuerdings wieder bewachsen (Niederungen, Quellgruende usw), finden wir die seiner heutigen Ausbreitung; und b) die ausschliesslich erwachsenen Elemente inmitten von Laubwald zeigen sein heutigen Gebiet des Konkurrenzhampfes an. 3. Die Savannen und Campos, urspruenglich in Abhaengigkeit von ihrem geologischen Ursprung auf die sauren, armen Boeden beschraenkt, dehnen sich schnell infolge Raubbaus durch den Menschen auf neue Gebiete aus: a) zerstoerte Waldgebiete auf tiefen Sandformationen, wo der entwaldete Boden im halbfeuchten Klima der Lateritisierung beschleunigt unterliegt, sind Bildung des Cerrados ausgesetzt; b) zerstoerte Waldgebiete auf Tonformationen, wo die Erosion schnell bis zu den halbzerlegten Gesteinen fortschreitet, werden in Campo verwandelt; und c) Ackerbaugebiete und Weiden auf jedem Boden, wo periodisch gebrannt wird, sind gezwungenermassen dem "Feuer-Klimax" unterworfen. 4. Bezueglich der historischen Vergangenheit der heute von einem bestimmten Vegetationstyp bedeckten Gebiete kann nur eine Pollenanalyse der lokalen organischen Ablagerungen definitive Antwort geben.