Avaliação do grau de inflamação vascular em pacientes com síndrome metabólica

FUNDAMENTO: A síndrome metabólica é definida com um conjunto de fatores de risco cardiovasculares relacionados à obesidade visceral e resistência insulínica, que levam a um aumento da mortalidade geral, especialmente cardiovascular. Os marcadores inflamatórios são considerados fatores de risco emergentes e podem ser potencialmente utilizados na estratificação clínica das doenças cardiovasculares estabelecendo valores prognósticos. OBJETIVO: Esta pesquisa tem por objetivo avaliar quais componentes da síndrome metabólica apresentam aumento de IL-6 e PCR-AS, identificando o marcador que melhor expressa o grau de inflamação, e qual componente isoladamente apresenta maior interferência nos marcadores inflamatórios estudados, a fim de identificar outros fatores de risco importantes na determinação da inflamação arterial. METODOLOGIA: Foram selecionados 87 pacientes, entre 26 e 85 anos, hipertensos, diabéticos e dislipidêmicos que obedecessem aos critérios necessários ao diagnóstico de certeza da síndrome metabólica. Os pacientes foram avaliados através da MAPA de 24h e submetidos a dosagens de PCR-AS e IL-6, entre outras variáveis metabólicas. RESULTADOS: Os pacientes que apresentaram PCR > 0,3mg/dl mostraram correlação significativa (p<0,05) com perímetro abdominal >102/88 cm em 83,7%; glicemia > 110mg/dl em 88%; e IMC > 30kg/m² em 60,5% dos indivíduos estudados. CONCLUSÃO: Concluiu-se que a PCR foi o marcador inflamatório de maior expressão em relação às variáveis estudadas, sendo tabagismo, albuminúria, história de cardiopatia pessoal prévia, IMC, perímetro abdominal e hiperglicemia as de maior relevância estatística. A interleucina-6 não mostrou correlação com nenhuma variável estudada.

Quimiossensibilidade durante exercício na insuficiência cardíaca: respostas ventilatórias, cronotrópicas e neurohormonais

FUNDAMENTO: Insuficiência cardíaca (IC) está associada com aumento da quimio-sensibilidade periférica e central em repouso, que pode estar correlacionada com um aumento na resposta ventilatória durante exercício. Entretanto, SUS sensibilidade na IC durante o exercício ainda não foi reportada. OBJETIVO: Testar se o estímulo dos quimiorreceptores centrais e periféricos em pacientes com IC pode modular respostas ventilatórias, cronotrópicas e neurohormonais durante exercício submáximo. MÉTODOS: Investigamos a quimio-sensibilidade central e periférica em 15 pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca (IC) e 7 controles normais (C), comparando a resposta durante 3 testes de caminhada de 6 minutos (TC6M), realizado em esteira ergométrica com: ar ambiente, em hipóxia e em hipercapnia (em ordem randômica). RESULTADOS: FR em ar ambiente nos grupos C e IC foi 17±2 e 22±2 (p<,0001); em hipóxia, foi 17±1 e 23±2 (p<,02); com CO25% foi 20±2 e 22±5 (p<,02). Volume tidal (VT) ou corrente em ar ambiente foi 1,25±0,17 e 1,08±0,19 (p<,01); em hipóxia 1,65±0,34 e 1,2±0,2(p<,0001); com CO25% 1,55±0,46 e 1,29±0,39 (p<,0001). Em repouso, o aumento na IC foi maior para VE (C 33±40%, IC 62±94%, p<,01), FC(C 7±10%, IC 10±10%, p<0,05) em repouso. Durante a hipóxia, o aumento durante o exercício na IC foi maior para FR (C 1±4, IC 11±6,p<,05), FC (C 12±2, IC 14±3, p<,05), VE/VO2 (C -4±18%, IC 24±21%, p<,01), FC/VO2 (C -26±11%, IC 11±5%, p<,01), VE/DC (C 36±10%, 46±14, p<,05% ) and FC/DC (C 18±8%, HF 29±11, p<,01). Durante exercício em hipóxia no grupo IC, o NO diminuiu e os níveis de IL-6 e aldosterona aumentaram. Os níveis neurohormonais permaneceram inalterados no grupo C. CONCLUSÃO: A quimio-sensibilidade central e a periférica durante o exercício estão aumentadas na IC e podem modular padrões respiratórios, cronotrópicos cardíacos e atividade neurohormonal durante exercício.

Marcadores inflamatórios e anticorpos anti-chlamydia em pacientes com síndrome metabólica

FUNDAMENTO: A síndrome metabólica está associada ao aumento de risco de eventos cardiovasculares. Marcadores inflamatórios e anticorpos anti-Chlamydia têm sido relacionados ao desenvolvimento e à progressão da aterosclerose e dos eventos cardiovasculares. OBJETIVO: Avaliar os marcadores inflamatórios interleucina-6 (IL-6) e fator de necrose tumoral-alfa (TNF-α) e os anticorpos anti-Chlamydia pneumoniae em pacientes com síndrome metabólica (SM), com e sem eventos cardiovasculares. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal constituído por 147 indivíduos. Desses, 100 (68%) com SM e sem eventos cardiovasculares; e 47 (32%) com SM e com eventos cardiovasculares. Dos indivíduos que sofreram eventos cardiovasculares, 13 (6,11%) apresentam infarto agudo do miocárdio (IAM), e dez (4,7%), acidente vascular cerebral (AVC). O diagnóstico da SM foi determinado pelos critérios do NCEP-ATPIII. RESULTADOS: A média de idade dos sujeitos com eventos cardiovasculares foi de 61,26 ± 8,5 e de 59,32 ± 9,9 nos indivíduos sem esses eventos (p=0,279), havendo predomínio do sexo feminino. O grupo com SM e sem evento apresentou maior peso, altura, IMC e circunferência abdominal. Para os indivíduos com eventos cardiovasculares (p=0,001), os marcadores inflamatórios IL-6 e TNF-α e a doença vascular periférica foram significativamente maiores. Obtiveram-se níveis elevados de anticorpos IgG para Chlamydia pneumoniae no grupo SM, sem eventos e de IgA no grupo com eventos quando comparados os dois grupos. Com relação ao IAM e ao AVC, os anticorpos anti-Chlamydia pneumoniae não demonstraram significância estatística, comparados ao grupo sem eventos cardiovasculares. Associação foi observada com o uso de estatinas, hipoglicemiantes orais, injetáveis e anti-inflamatórios não esteroidais no grupo com esses eventos. CONCLUSÃO: Marcadores inflamatórios encontram-se significativamente elevados em pacientes com SM, com IAM e AVC. Anticorpos anti-Chlamydia não mostraram diferença significativa em pacientes com SM, com e sem eventos.

Resveratrol provoca efeitos antiaterogênicos em um modelo animal de aterosclerose

FUNDAMENTO: O resveratrol protege o sistema cardiovascular por meio de uma série de mecanismos, incluindo atividades antioxidantes e antiplaquetárias. OBJETIVO: Avaliar os possíveis efeitos anti-inflamatórios e antiaterogênicos do resveratrol, utilizando coelhos alimentados com uma dieta hipercolesterolêmica (1% de colesterol). MÉTODOS: Vinte coelhos brancos adultos do sexo masculino foram selecionados e divididos em dois grupos: grupo controle (GC), 10 coelhos; e grupo resveratrol (GR), 10 coelhos. Os animais foram alimentados com uma dieta hipercolesterolêmica por 56 dias. Para a dieta do GR, o resveratrol (2mg/kg peso/dia) foi adicionado do 33º ao 56º dia. RESULTADOS: Não houve diferença significativa entre os grupos no colesterol sérico total, no colesterol HDL, no colesterol LDL e nos triglicerídeos. No GC, 70% apresentaram lesões ateroscleróticas avançadas da aorta (tipos III, IV, V ou VI). Todos os animais do GR apresentaram lesões ateroscleróticas leves da aorta (tipos I ou II) ou não apresentaram lesões. A razão entre a área intimal e a área da camada intimal/medial mostrou-se significativamente menor no GR quando comparada ao GC (p < 0,001). Áreas positivas para moléculas de adesão celular vascular-1 (VCAM-1) foram menores no GR (p = 0,007). As concentrações de proteína quimiotática de monócitos-1 (MCP-1) e de interleucina-6 (IL-6) mostraram-se significativamente menores no GR do que no GC (p = 0,039 e p = 0,015, respectivamente). CONCLUSÃO: O Resveratrol apresentou importantes efeitos antiaterogênicos e anti-inflamatórios em um modelo animal com coelhos alimentados com uma dieta hipercolesterolêmica.

Associação entre marcadores de inflamação e aumento do átrio esquerdo em pacientes de hemodiálise

FUNDAMENTO: Em indivíduos com doença renal crônica e doença cardiovascular (DCV) concomitante, apontou-se relação entre o volume do átrio esquerdo (AE) e os níveis séricos de proteína C reativa (PCR). OBJETIVO: Verificar a presença de associações entre inflamação sistêmica e dilatação do AE em pacientes de hemodiálise (HD) sem DCV clinicamente manifesta. MÉTODOS: Estudo observacional transversal em população sob HD (> 3 meses), excluindo-se pacientes com afecções inflamatórias crônicas ou agudas (infecções, neoplasias, doenças autoimunes) instabilidade hemodinâmica, uso de drogas anti-inflamatórias, hiperparatireoidismo, arritmias, valvopatia mitral e evento cardiovascular (CV) prévio. Dosagens de PCR e interleucina 6 (IL-6), e ecodopplercardiograma foram obtidos. Coeficientes de correlação foram determinados para avaliar as associações entre as variáveis. RESULTADOS: Incluídos 58 pacientes (28 homens, idade 55 ± 15 anos), sob HD há 24 ± 16 meses, 45% hipertensos, 26% diabéticos, com medianas de PCR 5,1 mg/dl e IL-6 6,1 pg/dl. A PCR correlacionou-se significativamente com dimensão do AE (p = 0,040), volume indexado do AE (VIAE, p = 0,02) e onda E do fluxo mitral (p = 0,014). A IL-6, apesar da forte associação com a PCR (r = 0,75, p < 0,001), não se correlacionou com índices ecocardiográficos. Indivíduos no quartil superior da PCR tiveram VIAE significativamente maior do que os demais (42 ± 17 versus 32 ± 11 ml/m², p = 0,015). CONCLUSÕES: Em indivíduos sob HD sem evento CV prévio, houve associação entre elevação da PCR e aumento do AE. Os achados sugerem uma ligação entre processos fisiopatológicos relacionados à dilatação atrial esquerda e o estado inflamatório sistêmico de pacientes sob HD.

Coevolution of hosts and microorganisms: an analysis of the involvment of cytokines in host-parasite interactions

Parasites may employ particular strategies of eluding an immune response by taking advantage of those mechanisms that normally guarantee immunological self-tolerance. Much in the way as it occurs during the establishment of self-tolerance, live pathogens may induce clonal deletion, functional inactivation(anergy) and immunosupression. At this latter level, it appears that certain pathogens produce immunosupresive cytokine-like mediators or provoke like host the secrete cytokines that will compromise the anti-parasite immune response. It appears that immune responses that preferentially involve T helper l cells (secretors of interleukin-2-and interferon-y) tend to be protective, whereas T helper 2 cells (secretors of IL-4, IL5, IL-6, and IL-10), a population that antagonizes T helper cells, mediate disease susceptibility and are immunopathological reactions. Cytokines produced by T helper 2 cells mediate many symptoms of infection, including eosinophilia, mastocytosis, hyperimmunoglobulinemia, and elevated IgE levels. Administration of IL-2 and IFN-y has beneficial effects in many infections mediated by viruses, bacteria, and protozoa. The use of live vaccinia virus might be an avenue for the treatment of or vaccination against infection. We have found that a vaccinia virus expressing the gene for human IL-2, though attenuated, precipitates autoimmune disease in immunodeficient athymic mice. Thus, although T helper l cytokines may have desired immunostimulatory properties, they also may lead to unwarranted autoaggressive responses.

Cytokine responses to Dengue Infection among Puerto Rican Patients

Recently, a strong correlation between high concentration of tumor necrosis factor (TNFalpha) in blood and severity of dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome has been reported from Asia and the Pacific. We wished to determine if a similar relationship could be found in dengue patients in the Americas where adult patients with severe syndromes have been observed more frequently than in Asia where severe cases have been observed mostly among children. The concentrations of interleukin-1 (IL-1beta) in hospistalized adult groups were significantly lower than that in outpatient adults. In contrast, the levels of interleukin 6 (IL-6) were significantly higher in hospistalized adults and children than in the corresponding outpatients. Levels of TNFalpha were higher in hospistalized children than in outpatient children or hospistalized adults. There was no significant difference in the levels of these three cytokines among hospitalized patients with or without hemorrhagic manifestations. Thus, an elevated IL-6 level was positively associated with severity of dengue infection in both children and adults, but IL-1beta level was negatively associated with severity in adults.

Association of cytokine genetic polymorphism with hepatites B infection evolution in adult patients

The infection by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) has different forms of evolution, ranging from self-limited infection to chronic hepatic disease. The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of cytokine genetic polymorphisms in the disease evolution. The patients were divided into two groups, one with chronic HBV (n = 30), and the other with self-limited infection (n = 41). The genotyping for TNF (-308), TGFB1 (+869, +915), IL-10 (1082, -819, and -592), IL-6 (-174), and IFNG (+874) was accomplished by the PCR-SSP (polymerase chain reaction with sequence specific primers technique using the One Lambda kit. Although no statistically significant differences were found between the groups, the combination of TNF -308GG and IFNG +874TA was found in a lower frequency in chronic patients than in individuals with self-limited infection (26.7 versus 46.3%; P = 0.079; OR = 0.40; IC95% = 0.14-1.11). In chronic patients with histological alterations it was not observed the genotype TGFB1+869 C/C, against 24.4% in the self limited infection group (100 versus 75.6%; P = 0.096; OR = 7.67; IC95% = 0.42-141.63). Further studies in other populations, and evaluation of a greater number of individuals could contribute for a better understanding of the cytokine genetic polymorphism influence in HBV infection evolution.

An in vitro model for dengue virus infection that exhibits human monocyte infection, multiple cytokine production and dexamethasone immunomodulation

An important cytokine role in dengue fever pathogenesis has been described. These molecules can be associated with haemorrhagic manifestations, coagulation disorders, hypotension and shock, all symptoms implicated in vascular permeability and disease worsening conditions. Several immunological diseases have been treated by cytokine modulation and dexamethasone is utilized clinically to treat pathologies with inflammatory and autoimmune ethiologies. We established an in vitro model with human monocytes infected by dengue virus-2 for evaluating immunomodulatory and antiviral activities of potential pharmaceutical products. Flow cytometry analysis demonstrated significant dengue antigen detection in target cells two days after infection. TNF-alpha, IFN-alpha, IL-6 and IL-10 are produced by in vitro infected monocytes and are significantly detected in cell culture supernatants by multiplex microbead immunoassay. Dexamethasone action was tested for the first time for its modulation in dengue infection, presenting optimistic results in both decreasing cell infection rates and inhibiting TNF-alpha, IFN-alpha and IL-10 production. This model is proposed for novel drug trials yet to be applyed for dengue fever.

Interleukin-15 augments oxidative metabolism and fungicidal activity of human monocytes against Paracoccidioides brasiliensis

Interleukin (IL)-15 is a pleiotropic cytokine that regulates the proliferation and survival of many cell types. IL-15 is produced by monocytes and macrophages against infectious agents and plays a pivotal role in innate and adaptive immune responses. This study analyzed the effect of IL-15 on fungicidal activity, oxidative metabolism and cytokine production by human monocytes challenged in vitro with Paracoccidioides brasiliensis (Pb18), the agent of paracoccidioidomycosis. Peripheral blood monocytes were pre-incubated with IL-15 and then challenged with Pb18. Fungicidal activity was assessed by viable fungi recovery from cultures after plating on brain-heart infusion-agar. Superoxide anion (O2-), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), IL-6, IL-15 and IL-10 production by monocytes were also determined. IL-15 enhanced fungicidal activity against Pb18 in a dose-dependent pattern. This effect was abrogated by addition of anti-IL-15 monoclonal antibody. A significant stimulatory effect of IL-15 on O2- and H2O2 release suggests that fungicidal activity was dependent on the activation of oxidative metabolism. Pre-treatment of monocytes with IL-15 induced significantly higher levels of TNF-α, IL-10 and IL-15 production by cells challenged with the fungus. These results suggest a modulatory effect of IL-15 on pro and anti-inflammatory cytokine production, oxidative metabolism and fungicidal activity of monocytes during Pb18 infection.

Distinct cytokine profiles of circulating mononuclear cells stimulated with Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin A in vitro during early and late episodes of chronic osteomyelitis

We investigated the cytokine profile of peripheral mononuclear cells from chronic osteomyelitis (OST) patients following in vitro stimulation with staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA). We demonstrate that stimulation with SEA induced prominent lymphocyte proliferation and high levels of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-10 secretion in both OST and non-infected individuals (NI). Even though stimulation with SEA had no impact on IL-6 production in either patient group, the baseline level of IL-6 production by cells from OST patients was always significantly less than that produced by cells from NI. After classifying the osteomyelitic episodes based on the time after the last reactivation event as "early" (1-4 months) or "late" osteomyelitis (5-12 months), we found that increased levels of TNF-α and IL-4 in combination with decreased levels of IL-6 were observed in the early episodes. By contrast, increased levels of IL-10, IL-2 and IL-6 were hallmarks of late episodes. Our data demonstrate that early osteomyelitic episodes are accompanied by an increased frequency of "high producers" of TNF-α and IL-4, whereas late events are characterised by increased frequencies of "high producers" of IL-10, IL-6 and IL-2. These findings demonstrate the distinct cytokine profiles in chronic osteomyelitis, with a distinct regulation of IL-6 production during early and late episodes.

Alterations in cytokines and haematological parameters during the acute and convalescent phases of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax infections

Haematological and cytokine alterations in malaria are a broad and controversial subject in the literature. However, few studies have simultaneously evaluated various cytokines in a single patient group during the acute and convalescent phases of infection. The aim of this study was to sequentially characterise alterations in haematological patters and circulating plasma cytokine and chemokine levels in patients infected with Plasmodium vivax or Plasmodium falciparum from a Brazilian endemic area during the acute and convalescent phases of infection. During the acute phase, thrombocytopaenia, eosinopaenia, lymphopaenia and an increased number of band cells were observed in the majority of the patients. During the convalescent phase, the haematologic parameters returned to normal. During the acute phase, P. vivax and P. falciparum patients had significantly higher interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, IL-17, interferon-γ, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, macrophage inflammatory protein-1β and granulocyte-colony stimulating factor levels than controls and maintained high levels during the convalescent phase. IL-10 was detected at high concentrations during the acute phase, but returned to normal levels during the convalescent phase. Plasma IL-10 concentration was positively correlated with parasitaemia in P. vivax and P. falciparum-infected patients. The same was true for the TNF-α concentration in P. falciparum-infected patients. Finally, the haematological and cytokine profiles were similar between uncomplicated P. falciparum and P. vivax infections.

Pattern of cytokine and chemokine production by THP-1 derived macrophages in response to live or heat-killed Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin Moreau strain

Tuberculosis has great public health impact with high rates of mortality and the only prophylactic measure for it is the Mycobacterium bovisbacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine. The present study evaluated the release of cytokines [interleukin (IL)-1, tumour necrosis factor and IL-6] and chemokines [macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α and MIP-1β] by THP-1 derived macrophages infected with BCG vaccine obtained by growing mycobacteria in Viscondessa de Moraes Institute medium medium (oral) or Sauton medium (intradermic) to compare the effects of live and heat-killed (HK) mycobacteria. Because BCG has been reported to lose viability during the lyophilisation process and during storage, we examined whether exposing BCG to different temperatures also triggers differences in the expression of some important cytokines and chemokines of the immune response. Interestingly, we observed that HK mycobacteria stimulated cytokine and chemokine production in a different pattern from that observed with live mycobacteria.

Primary dengue virus infections induce differential cytokine production in Mexican patients

Severe dengue pathogenesis is not fully understood, but high levels of proinflammatory cytokines have been associated with dengue disease severity. In this study, the cytokine levels in 171 sera from Mexican patients with primary dengue fever (DF) and dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) from dengue virus (DENV) 1 (n = 116) or 2 (n = 55) were compared. DF and DHF were defined according to the patient’s clinical condition, the primary infections as indicated by IgG enzymatic immunoassay negative results, and the infecting serotype as assessed by real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Samples were analysed for circulating levels of interleukin (IL)-12p70, interferon (IFN)-γ, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-6, and IL-8 using a commercial cytometric bead array. Significantly higher IFN-γ levels were found in patients with DHF than those with DF. However, significantly higher IL-12p70, TNF-α, and IL-6 levels were associated with DHF only in patients who were infected with DENV2 but not with DENV1. Moreover, patients with DF who were infected with DENV1 showed higher levels of IL-12p70, TNF-α, and IL-6 than patients with DHF early after-fever onset. The IL-8 levels were similar in all cases regardless of the clinical condition or infection serotype. These results suggest that the association between high proinflammatory cytokine levels and dengue disease severity does not always stand, and it once again highlights the complex nature of DHF pathogenesis.

Efeito da hipertermia na pancreatite aguda grave experimental

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste estudo é avaliar os efeitos da hipertermia na pancreatite aguda (PA) grave experimental induzida por ácido taurocólico. MÉTODO: A PA grave foi induzida pela injeção retrógrada de ácido taurocólico a 2,5% ou 5% no ducto pancreático principal. Após a indução, os animais foram colocados numa gaiola contendo duas lâmpadas de 100 W. A temperatura corporal foi aumentada para 39,5ºC e mantida neste nível por 45 minutos. Foram estudados taxa de mortalidade em 72 horas, permeabilidade vascular no pâncreas, porcentagem de água no tecido pancreático, amilase sérica, histologia (edema, necrose acinar e infiltrado inflamatório) e níveis séricos de IL-6 e IL-10. RESULTADOS: Não houve alteração em nenhum dos parâmetros avaliados. CONCLUSÃO: Não há benefício da hipertermia na PA grave experimental induzida por ácido taurocólico.