Emissão de gases do efeito estufa em diferentes usos da terra no bioma Cerrado

A conversão de áreas nativas com o corte e queima de vegetação seguida do cultivo do solo resultam em mudanças na dinâmica da matéria orgânica do solo, com alterações nas emissões dos gases causadores de efeito estufa (GEE: CO2, CH4 e N2O) da biosfera para a atmosfera, que causam a elevação da temperatura média e, consequentemente, as mudanças climáticas globais. O objetivo deste estudo foi verificar as relações entre os fluxos de CO2, CH4 e N2O com a umidade, biomassa microbiana e as formas inorgânicas de N no solo com diferentes usos das terras no bioma Cerrado (Rio Verde, Goiás). O clima da região é do tipo Aw (Köppen-Geiger), e o solo foi classificado como Latossolo Vermelho distrófico caulinítico textura argilosa com vegetação original de Cerradão. O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado (DIC), com quatro tratamentos (áreas): vegetação nativa - Cerradão (CE); pastagem (PA) de braquiária, semeadura convencional (SC) de soja; e semeadura direta (SD) de milho sucedido por milheto. As emissões anuais de CO2 e N2O não mostraram diferenças significativas entre os tratamentos; isso ocorreu devido à elevada variação nos fluxos dos gases em decorrência da sazonalidade no clima, com as menores emissões observadas durante o inverno, devido à ausência da umidade do solo. A média na emissão de CO2 foi de 108,9 ± 85,6 mg m-2 h-1 , e para o N2O, de 13,5 ± 7,6 µg m-2 h-1. Os fluxos de CH4 apresentaram diferenças significativas somente para a pastagem, com emissão de 32 µg m-2 h-1 , enquanto nas demais áreas foram observados influxos entre 46 e 15 µg m-2 h-1 . Com os resultados das correlações, pode-se verificar que a umidade foi a variável do solo que apresentou maior correlação com o fluxo dos três gases de efeito estufa. O teor de N-NO3- e as emissões de CO2 mostraram correlações para todas as áreas. Quando consideradas as correlações para todos os tratamentos conjuntamente, verificou-se que os fluxos dos três gases apresentaram correlações significativas com os teores de C e N-microbiano. Contudo, a relação Cmicro:Nmicro não mostrou correlação significativa com o fluxo dos gases de efeito estufa. A pastagem foi a única situação em que os fluxos de CO2 e N2O apresentaram correlação com as quantidades de N-inorgânico. Os resultados sugerem que os fluxos dos GEE são dependentes do regime pluvial no bioma Cerrado, principalmente nas áreas cultivadas que recebem altas doses de fertilizantes para o aumento da produtividade.

Selecting statistical models to study the relationship between soybean yield and soil physical properties

Statistical models allow the representation of data sets and the estimation and/or prediction of the behavior of a given variable through its interaction with the other variables involved in a phenomenon. Among other different statistical models, are the autoregressive state-space models (ARSS) and the linear regression models (LR), which allow the quantification of the relationships among soil-plant-atmosphere system variables. To compare the quality of the ARSS and LR models for the modeling of the relationships between soybean yield and soil physical properties, Akaike's Information Criterion, which provides a coefficient for the selection of the best model, was used in this study. The data sets were sampled in a Rhodic Acrudox soil, along a spatial transect with 84 points spaced 3 m apart. At each sampling point, soybean samples were collected for yield quantification. At the same site, soil penetration resistance was also measured and soil samples were collected to measure soil bulk density in the 0-0.10 m and 0.10-0.20 m layers. Results showed autocorrelation and a cross correlation structure of soybean yield and soil penetration resistance data. Soil bulk density data, however, were only autocorrelated in the 0-0.10 m layer and not cross correlated with soybean yield. The results showed the higher efficiency of the autoregressive space-state models in relation to the equivalent simple and multiple linear regression models using Akaike's Information Criterion. The resulting values were comparatively lower than the values obtained by the regression models, for all combinations of explanatory variables.

New methods to quantify NH3 volatilization from fertilized surface soil with urea

Gaseous N losses from soil are considerable, resulting mostly from ammonia volatilization linked to agricultural activities such as pasture fertilization. The use of simple and accessible measurement methods of such losses is fundamental in the evaluation of the N cycle in agricultural systems. The purpose of this study was to evaluate quantification methods of NH3 volatilization from fertilized surface soil with urea, with minimal influence on the volatilization processes. The greenhouse experiment was arranged in a completely randomized design with 13 treatments and five replications, with the following treatments: (1) Polyurethane foam (density 20 kg m-3) with phosphoric acid solution absorber (foam absorber), installed 1, 5, 10 and 20 cm above the soil surface; (2) Paper filter with sulfuric acid solution absorber (paper absorber, 1, 5, 10 and 20 cm above the soil surface); (3) Sulfuric acid solution absorber (1, 5 and 10 cm above the soil surface); (4) Semi-open static collector; (5) 15N balance (control). The foam absorber placed 1 cm above the soil surface estimated the real daily rate of loss and accumulated loss of NH3N and proved efficient in capturing NH3 volatized from urea-treated soil. The estimates based on acid absorbers 1, 5 and 10 cm above the soil surface and paper absorbers 1 and 5 cm above the soil surface were only realistic for accumulated N-NH3 losses. Foam absorbers can be indicated to quantify accumulated and daily rates of NH3 volatilization losses similarly to an open static chamber, making calibration equations or correction factors unnecessary.

Resposta do feijoeiro à adubação fosfatada em solos de cerrado com diferentes históricos de uso

Os diferentes tempos de cultivo e as diferentes formas de manejo podem influenciar na disponibilidade dos nutrientes, entre os quais o P. Objetivou-se com este estudo avaliar a resposta do feijoeiro à adubação com diferentes doses de P, em quatro Latossolos de Cerrado sob diferentes históricos de uso. As amostras dos Latossolos - (LVd1) textura argilosa, (LVd2) textura média alta, (LVAd1) textura média e (LVAd2) textura média baixa - foram coletadas na camada de 0-20 cm de profundidade em locais cultivados há vários anos e, também, em áreas adjacentes não cultivadas (sob cerrado nativo). Com as amostras superficiais dos solos de cada área, foi conduzido um experimento em casa de vegetação, em delineamento inteiramente casualizado, num esquema fatorial 2 x 4 (dois históricos de uso cultivado e não cultivado, e quatro doses de P), com quatro repetições. As doses de P, equivalentes a 0, 120, 240 e 480 mg dm-3, foram aplicadas na forma de superfosfato triplo. A adição de doses crescentes de P aos solos promoveu aumento dos componentes relacionados ao crescimento do feijoeiro, principalmente matéria seca e conteúdo de P. A condição de solo já cultivado potencializou as respostas do feijoeiro à adubação, sobretudo na menor dose de P, e, nessa condição, houve maior absorção de P pelas plantas. O histórico de uso do solo influencia tanto a absorção quanto a eficiência de utilização de P pelas plantas; no entanto, as condições que promovem maior absorção são opostas àquelas que permitem maior eficiência de utilização do nutriente, sobretudo nas condições de solo já cultivado. A disponibilidade de P no solo foi mais dependente das características físicas, químicas e mineralógicas do que do histórico de uso do solo.

The costs of soil erosion

The aim of this study was a survey of the estimated costs of soil erosion, an issue of fundamental importance in view of the current worldwide discussions on sustainability. A list was drawn up of research papers on erosion (on-site and off-site effects) and their respective costs. The estimates indicate the amount of resources spent in the process of soil degradation, raising a general awareness of the need for soil conservation. On-site costs affect the production units directly, while off-site costs create a burden borne by the environment, economy and society. In addition, estimating the costs of soil erosion should be effective to alert the agricultural producers, society and government for the need for measures that can be implemented to bring erosion under control. Among the various estimates of soil erosion costs between 1933 a 2010, the highest figure was 45.5 billion dollars a year for the European Union. In the United States, the highest figure was 44 billion dollars a year. In Brazil, estimates for the state of Paraná indicate a value of 242 million dollars a year, and for the state of São Paulo, 212 million dollars a year. These figures show, above all, that conservation measures must be implemented if crop and livestock farming production are to be sustainable.

Improvement of a testing apparatus for dynamometry: procedures for penetrometry and influence of strain rate to quantify the tensile strength of soil aggregates

Soil penetration resistance (PR) and the tensile strength of aggregates (TS) are commonly used to characterize the physical and structural conditions of agricultural soils. This study aimed to assess the functionality of a dynamometry apparatus by linear speed and position control automation of its mobile base to measure PR and TS. The proposed equipment was used for PR measurement in undisturbed samples of a clayey "Nitossolo Vermelho eutroférrico" (Kandiudalfic Eutrudox) under rubber trees sampled in two positions (within and between rows). These samples were also used to measure the volumetric soil water content and bulk density, and determine the soil resistance to penetration curve (SRPC). The TS was measured in a sandy loam "Latossolo Vermelho distrófico" (LVd) - Typic Haplustox - and in a very clayey "Nitossolo Vermelho distroférrico" (NVdf) - Typic Paleudalf - under different uses: LVd under "annual crops" and "native forest", NVdf under "annual crops" and "eucalyptus plantation" (> 30 years old). To measure TS, different strain rates were applied using two dynamometry testing devices: a reference machine (0.03 mm s-1), which has been widely used in other studies, and the proposed equipment (1.55 mm s-1). The determination coefficient values of the SRPC were high (R² > 0.9), regardless of the sampling position. Mean TS values in LVd and NVdf obtained with the proposed equipment did not differ (p > 0.05) from those of the reference testing apparatus, regardless of land use and soil type. Results indicate that PR and TS can be measured faster and accurately by the proposed procedure.

Method to estimate soil macroporosity and microporosity based on sand content and bulk density

Macroporosity is often used in the determination of soil compaction. Reduced macroporosity can lead to poor drainage, low root aeration and soil degradation. The aim of this study was to develop and test different models to estimate macro and microporosity efficiently, using multiple regression. Ten soils were selected within a large range of textures: sand (Sa) 0.07-0.84; silt 0.03-0.24; clay 0.13-0.78 kg kg-1 and subjected to three compaction levels (three bulk densities, BD). Two models with similar accuracy were selected, with a mean error of about 0.02 m³ m-3 (2 %). The model y = a + b.BD + c.Sa, named model 2, was selected for its simplicity to estimate Macro (Ma), Micro (Mi) or total porosity (TP): Ma = 0.693 - 0.465 BD + 0.212 Sa; Mi = 0.337 + 0.120 BD - 0.294 Sa; TP = 1.030 - 0.345 BD 0.082 Sa; porosity values were expressed in m³ m-3; BD in kg dm-3; and Sa in kg kg-1. The model was tested with 76 datum set of several other authors. An error of about 0.04 m³ m-3 (4 %) was observed. Simulations of variations in BD as a function of Sa are presented for Ma = 0 and Ma = 0.10 (10 %). The macroporosity equation was remodeled to obtain other compaction indexes: a) to simulate maximum bulk density (MBD) as a function of Sa (Equation 11), in agreement with literature data; b) to simulate relative bulk density (RBD) as a function of BD and Sa (Equation 13); c) another model to simulate RBD as a function of Ma and Sa (Equation 16), confirming the independence of this variable in relation to Sa for a fixed value of macroporosity and, also, proving the hypothesis of Hakansson & Lipiec that RBD = 0.87 corresponds approximately to 10 % macroporosity (Ma = 0.10 m³ m-3).

Soil phosphorus dynamics and availability and irrigated coffee yield

Research data have demonstrated that the P demand of coffee (Coffea arabica L.) is similar to that of short-cycle crops. In this context, the objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of annual P fertilization on the soil P status by the quantification of labile, moderately labile, low-labile, and total P fractions, associating them to coffee yield. The experiment was installed in a typical dystrophic Red Latosol (Oxisol) cultivated with irrigated coffee annually fertilized with triple superphosphate at rates of 0, 50, 100, 200, and 400 kg ha-1 P2O5. Phosphorus fractions were determined in two soil layers: 0-10 and 10-20 cm. The P leaf contents and coffee yield in 2008 were also evaluated. The irrigated coffee responded to phosphate fertilization in the production phase with gains of up to 138 % in coffee yield by the application of 400 kg ha-1 P2O5. Coffee leaf P contents increased with P applications and stabilized around 1.98 g kg-1, at rates of 270 kg ha-1 P2O5 and higher. Soil P application caused, in general, an increase in bioavailable P fractions, which constitute the main soil P reservoir.

Mitigation of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from flood-irrigated rice by no incorporation of winter crop residues into the soil

Winter cover crops are sources of C and N in flooded rice production systems, but very little is known about the effect of crop residue management and quality on soil methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. This study was conducted in pots in a greenhouse to evaluate the influence of crop residue management (incorporated into the soil or left on the soil surface) and the type of cover-crop residues (ryegrass and serradella) on CH4 and N2O emissions from a flooded Albaqualf soil cultivated with rice (Oryza sativa L.). The closed chamber technique was used for air sampling and the CH4 and N2O concentrations were analyzed by gas chromatography. Soil solution was sampled at two soil depths (2 and 20 cm), simultaneously to air sampling, and the contents of dissolved organic C (DOC), NO3-, NH4+, Mn2+, and Fe2+ were analyzed. Methane and N2O emissions from the soil where crop residues had been left on the surface were lower than from soil with incorporated residues. The type of crop residue had no effect on the CH4 emissions, while higher N2O emissions were observed from serradella (leguminous) than from ryegrass, but only when the residues were left on the soil surface. The more intense soil reduction verified in the deeper soil layer (20 cm), as evidenced by higher contents of reduced metal species (Mn2+ and Fe2+), and the close relationship between CH4 emission and the DOC contents in the deeper layer indicated that the sub-surface layer was the main CH4 source of the flooded soil with incorporated crop residues. The adoption of management strategies in which crop residues are left on the soil surface is crucial to minimize soil CH4 and N2O emissions from irrigated rice fields. In these production systems, CH4 accounts for more than 90 % of the partial global warming potential (CH4+N2O) and, thus, should be the main focus of research.

Aspectos agronômicos de leguminosas para adubação verde no Cerrado do Alto Vale do Jequitinhonha

O uso intensivo e inadequado dos solos acelera sua degradação, sendo necessária a intervenção por meio de práticas conservacionistas para restaurar a capacidade produtiva dos mesmos. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o comportamento e desenvolvimento de diferentes leguminosas utilizadas como adubos verdes em solos de Cerrado, Alto Vale do Jequitinhonha, em Turmalina, MG. O delineamento experimental adotado foi em blocos ao acaso, com sete tratamentos e quatro repetições, sendo os tratamentos constituídos pelas leguminosas: mucuna-cinza (Mucuna nivea), mucuna-preta (Mucuna aterrima), lablabe (Dolichos lablab), feijão-de-porco (Canavalia ensiformis), Crotalaria juncea, Crotalaria spectabilis e guandu-anão (Cajanus cajan). O ciclo precoce de C . juncea, C. spectabilis e feijão-de-porco favorece a inserção destes nos sistemas de cultivo. Aos 40 dias, o feijão-de-porco e mucuna-cinza já cobriam o solo, com 67 e 63 %; já o guandu-anão e C. juncea apresentaram os maiores desenvolvimentos, nesse período. Os teores de N, P e K tendem a diminuir nas avaliações realizadas nas diferentes fases vegetativas, o que contribui para melhor escolha da época de manejo das leguminosas. Crotalaria juncea, mucuna-cinza, feijão-de-porco e mucuna-preta foram as leguminosas que se destacaram na produção de matéria seca, o que torna essas espécies promissoras para adubação verde na região. As leguminosas, em sua maioria, apresentam potencial para reciclagem dos macronutrientes e aporte de N aos sistemas de produção.

Computer-assisted cartography using topographic properties: precision and accuracy of local soil maps in central Mexico

Map units directly related to properties of soil-landscape are generated by local soil classes. Therefore to take into consideration the knowledge of farmers is essential to automate the procedure. The aim of this study was to map local soil classes by computer-assisted cartography (CAC), using several combinations of topographic properties produced by GIS (digital elevation model, aspect, slope, and profile curvature). A decision tree was used to find the number of topographic properties required for digital cartography of the local soil classes. The maps produced were evaluated based on the attributes of map quality defined as precision and accuracy of the CAC-based maps. The evaluation was carried out in Central Mexico using three maps of local soil classes with contrasting landscape and climatic conditions (desert, temperate, and tropical). In the three areas the precision (56 %) of the CAC maps based on elevation as topographical feature was higher than when based on slope, aspect and profile curvature. The accuracy of the maps (boundary locations) was however low (33 %), in other words, further research is required to improve this indicator.

Phosphatase activity in sandy soil influenced by mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal cover crops

Cover crops may difffer in the way they affect rhizosphere microbiota nutrient dynamics. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal cover crops on soil phosphatase activity and its persistence in subsequent crops. A three-year experiment was carried out with a Typic Quartzipsamment. Treatments were winter species, either mycorrhizal black oat (Avena strigosa Schreb) or the non-mycorrhizal species oilseed radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. oleiferus Metzg) and corn spurry (Spergula arvensis L.). The control treatment consisted of resident vegetation (fallow in the winter season). In the summer, a mixture of pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum L.) with sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea L.) or with soybean (Glycine max L.) was sown in all plots. Soil cores (0-10 cm) and root samples were collected in six growing seasons (winter and summer of each year). Microbial biomass P was determined by the fumigation-extraction method and phosphatase activity using p-nitrophenyl-phosphate as enzyme substrate. During the flowering stage of the winter cover crops, acid phosphatase activity was 30-35 % higher in soils with the non-mycorrhizal species oilseed radish, than in the control plots, regardless of the amount of P immobilized in microbial biomass. The values of enzyme activity were intermediate in the plots with corn spurry and black oat. Alkaline phosphatase activity was 10-fold lower and less sensitive to the treatments, despite the significant relationship between the two phosphatase activities. The effect of plant species on the soil enzyme profile continued in the subsequent periods, during the growth of mycorrhizal summer crops, after completion of the life cycle of the cover crops.

Least limiting water range in soil under crop rotations and chiseling

Soil water availability to plants is affected by soil compaction and other variables. The Least Limiting Water Range (LLWR) comprises soil physical variables affecting root growth and soil water availability, and can be managed by either mechanical or biological methods. There is evidence that effects of crop rotations could last longer than chiseling, so the objective of this study was to assess the effect of soil chiseling or growing cover crops under no-till (NT) on the LLWR. Crop rotations involving triticale (X Triticosecale) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus) in the fall-winter associated with millet (Pennisetum glaucum), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea) as cover crops preceding soybean (Glycine max) were repeated for three consecutive years. In the treatment with chiseling (performed only in the first year), the area was left fallow between the fall-winter and summer crops. The experiment was carried out in Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil, from 2003 to 2006 on a Typic Rhodudalf. The LLWR was determined in soil samples taken from the layers 0-20 cm and 20- 40 cm, after chemical desiccation of the cover crops in December of the first and third year of the experiment. Chiseling decreases soil bulk density in the 0-20 cm soil layer, increasing the LLWR magnitude by lowering the soil water content at which penetration resistance reaches 2.0 MPa; this effect is present up to the third year after chiseling and can reach to a depth of 0.40 m. Crop rotations involving sunflower + sunn hemp, triticale + millet and triticale + sunn hemp for three years prevented soil bulk density from exceeding the critical soil bulk density in the 0- 0.20 m layer. This effect was observed to a depth of 0.40 m after three years of chiseling under crop rotations involving forage sorghum. Hence, chiseling and some crop rotations under no tillage are effective in increasing soil quality assessed by the LLWR.

Compartimentos de carbono em latossolo vermelho sob cultivo de eucalipto e fitofisionomias de cerrado

Os objetivos deste trabalho foram avaliar o impacto do cultivo do eucalipto, em diferentes idades, e de fitofisionomias de Cerrado sobre os estoques de C orgânico total e de seus compartimentos e verificar qual dessas frações constitui-se em indicador mais sensível às mudanças de uso do solo. O estudo foi realizado em Brasília, DF, em Latossolo Vermelho distroférrico sob plantio de eucalipto com três (PEUC-3), seis (PEUC-6) e sete (PEUC-7) anos de idade e sob Cerrado senso stricto, Cerrado denso e campo sujo. Nessas áreas, amostras de solo foram coletadas nas camadas de 0-10 e 10-20 cm, para determinação dos estoques de C orgânico total (COT), carbono da fração leve livre (FLL) e carbono das frações húmicas (ácidos fúlvicos - FAF, ácidos húmicos - FAH e huminas - FH). Em ambas as camadas de solo, observaram-se maiores estoques de COT e de C nos compartimentos, nas áreas sob Cerrado denso e Cerrado, comparativamente àquelas cultivadas com eucalipto; houve recuperação dos estoques de C em todos os compartimentos, com o aumento do tempo de cultivo do eucalipto. O C-FLL, seguido do C-FAF e C-FAH, foram considerados os compartimentos mais sensíveis às mudanças no uso do solo, uma vez que as reduções em estoque foram de maior amplitude do que as observadas no COT e C-FH. A análise multivariada, que considera todos os compartimentos conjuntamente, evidenciou maior similaridade entre o Cerrado denso e Cerrado, bem como entre o campo sujo, PEUC-3, PEUC-6 e PEUC7, nas camadas de 0-10 e 10-20 cm.

Attributes of irrigated rice as affected by soil sodicity and potassic fertilizer application

Soils of the coastal plains of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, are affected by salinization, which can hamper the establishment and development of crops in general, including rice. The application of high doses of KCl may aggravate the crop damage, due to the high saline content of this fertilizer. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of K fertilizer management on some properties of rice plant, grown in soils with different sodicity levels, and determine which attribute is best related to yield. The field study was conducted in four Albaqualfs with exchangeable Na percentages of 5.6, 9.0, 21 and 32 %. The management of KCl fertilizer consisted of the application of 90 kg ha-1 K2O broadcast, 90 kg ha-1 K2O in the row and 45 kg ha-1 K2O in the row + 45 kg ha-1 K2O at panicle initiation (PI). Plant density, dry matter evolution, height, SPAD (Soil Plant Analysis Development value indicating relative chlorophyll contents) index, tiller mass, 1,000-grain weight, panicle length and grain yield were evaluated. The plant density was damaged by application of K fertilizer in the row, especially at full dose (90 kg ha-1), at three sodicity levels, resulting in loss in biomass accumulation in later stages, affecting the crop yield, even at the lowest level of soil sodicity (5.6 %). All properties were correlated with yield; the highest positive correlation was found with plant density and shoot dry matter at full flowering, and a negative correlation with panicle length.