Estudo comparativo de dellineamentos experimentais para estimativas de parâmetros genéticos em erva-mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St. - Hil.)

O presente trabalho teve por objetivo comparar a eficiência do látice em relação aos delineamentos em blocos casualizados (DBC) e inteiramente casualizados (DIC) quanto aos caracteres altura e produção de massa verde em erva-mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St. - Hil.). O experimento, conduzido na Fazenda Experimental do Canguiri, da Universidade Federal do Paraná, em Pinhais, PR, foi composto de cinco procedências, quatro com 13 e uma com 12 progênies de meias-irmãs. Cada progênie continha 54 plantas (nove parcelas de seis plantas). O experimento seguiu o modelo látice 8 x 8 com nove repetições balanceadas. As análises foram conduzidas usando-se tanto este modelo quanto os modelos DBC e DIC. Com relação ao caráter altura, a estimativa da eficiência do DBC em relação ao DIC (Êb/i) foi de 48,6%; do látice em relação ao DBC (Êl/b), de 61%; e do látice em relação ao DIC (Êl/i), de 139%. A estimativa da correlação intraclasse entre plantas dentro das parcelas (c²) foi de 9,4% para o DBC e zero para o látice. Para o caráter produção de massa verde, Êb/i, Êl/b e Êl/i foram de 14,3; 81,7; e 108%, respectivamente; e c², 16,9% para o DBC e 3,1% para o látice. Essas estimativas, associadas a uma estimativa de F de Snedecor altamente significativa dos dois caracteres, permitiram concluir que a capacidade de teste do DBC foi satisfatória para o caráter altura de plantas, mas insatisfatória para o caráter produção de massa verde.

Distribuição espacial e tamanho de amostra para o ácaro-do bronzeado da erva-mate

O ácaro Dichopelmus notus Keifer (Acari, Eriophyidae) provoca o bronzeamento e queda de folhas da erva-mate, reduzindo a produção e a qualidade de seus produtos. O acompanhamento dos níveis populacionais dessa espécie é importante para aprimorar seu manejo em plantios comerciais. Este trabalho teve por objetivos identificar a distribuição espacial e determinar o número de plantas e de folhas por planta que devem ser inspecionadas em cultivos comerciais de erva-mate em programas de monitoramento do ácaro-do-bronzeado. O estudo foi conduzido no Município de Chapecó, Santa Catarina, no período de janeiro de 2004 a janeiro de 2005. As avaliações foram realizadas quinzenalmente em um erval de 10 anos, dividido em três talhões com cerca de 2.500 m²cada, em que foram selecionadas 10 plantas ao acaso e em cada planta foi observado o número de ácaros em 18 folhas maduras. As inspeções foram executadas diretamente nos ervais com lentes com aumento de 10 vezes e 1 cm² de campo fixo. Constatou-se a distribuição espacial agregada para o ácaro, bem como a necessidade de inspecionar três folhas por planta, em 29 delas ao acaso e por hectare, de fevereiro a abril, para estimar a população com nível de precisão de 15%.

EFEITO DA ADIÇÃO DE RESÍDUOS DE PODA DA ERVA-MATE EM PAINÉIS AGLOMERADOS

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a viabilidade técnica da utilização de resíduos da poda de erva-mate na produção de painéis aglomerados. Foram produzidos painéis de aglomerados nas seguintes composições: 100% de pinus (T1), 100% de resíduos de erva-mate com casca (T2), 100% de resíduos de erva-mate sem casca (T3), 50% de pinus com 50% de resíduos de erva-mate com casca (T4) e 50% de pinus com 50% de resíduos de erva-mate sem casca (T5). Os painéis foram produzidos com o adesivo ureia-formaldeído a um teor de 8%, com ciclo de prensagem de 8 min, a 170 ºC e 30 kgf.cm-2. Os painéis produzidos com os resíduos de erva-mate apresentaram menor umidade de equilíbrio higroscópico (UEH), assim como menor absorção de água após 24 h de imersão (AA 24 h). Não houve diferença estatística entre os tratamentos quanto às propriedades de compressão, arrancamento de parafusos, dureza Janka e ligação interna. Os painéis produzidos com resíduos de erva-mate, assim como as misturas deles com partículas de pinus, apresentaram valores de módulo de ruptura à flexão estática inferiores aos estipulados pela norma brasileira NBR 14810-2 (ABNT, 2002). Como não atenderam a um dos requisitos mínimos, painéis produzidos com resíduos de erva-mate não devem ser utilizados em substituição aos painéis de madeira aglomerada.

Chá-mate e café como fontes de hidrocarbonetos policíclicos aromáticos (HPAs) na dieta da população de Campinas

Com o objetivo de determinar os níveis dos contaminantes hidrocarbonetos policíclicos aromáticos (HPAs) em chá-mate e café e avaliar a contribuição desses produtos como fonte de HPAs na dieta da população de Campinas, três marcas com três diferentes lotes de chá-mate e café em pó, totalizando 18 amostras, foram analisadas. Os dados de consumo de chá-mate e café foram obtidos de uma pesquisa de hábitos alimentares feita no ano de 1993 junto à população local, através do método de freqüência de alimentos. A determinação de HPAs foi conduzida por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência com detecção por fluorescência. A presença de diferentes hidrocarbonetos foi observada em todas as amostras de café analisadas, em níveis variando tanto entre as marcas quanto em função da técnica de preparo da bebida. A quantidade média de HPAs totais encontrada no café (bebida pronta para consumo) foi de 10,12mig/kg, enquanto que o chá-mate apresentou um nível de contaminantes significativamente menor (sigma=0,70mig/kg). Considerando-se a estimativa de consumo diário médio per capita de 69,79g de chá-mate e de 86,77g de café, pode-se considerar que o chá-mate e o café aportam diariamente cerca de 0, 05mig e 0, 88mig de HPAs totais, respectivamente, na dieta da população estudada (n=600 indivíduos).

Caracterização físico-química da erva mate: influência das etapas do processamento industrial

A erva-mate é uma matéria-prima de grande importância para a região Sul do Brasil, sendo que a produção anual é de aproximadamente 650.000 toneladas de folhas. Atualmente, problemas com o excesso de oferta têm incentivado pesquisadores e empresários a buscar alternativas para a utilização da erva-mate como matéria-prima para o desenvolvimento de novos produtos bem como promover melhorias no processamento industrial visando a obtenção de características organolépticas desejáveis. Neste sentido, o presente trabalho teve por objetivo realizar a caracterização físico-química da erva-mate em função das etapas do processamento industrial (sapeco, secagem e tempo de cancheamento) e verificar como estas etapas influem nos teores de cinzas, fibras, gorduras, proteínas, glicose, sacarose e cafeína presentes na matéria-prima. Os resultados obtidos permitiram verificar que as etapas do processamento industrial influem diretamente nos teores dos compostos citados, mostrando a relevância em se analisar estes resultados quando o objetivo é utilizar esta matéria-prima para o desenvolvimento de novos produtos alimentícios que podem exigir características específicas.

Secagem de extratos de erva-mate em secador por atomização

Efetuou-se a extração de solúveis de erva-mate, progênie Cambona 4, utilizando extrator com percolação de solvente (água). O extrato obtido apresentou uma concentração de sólidos de aproximadamente 3%. Ao extrato foi adicionada goma arábica nas concentrações de 0; 0,2; 0,4; 0,6; 0,8; 1,0; 1,5 e 2,0%, em relação aos sólidos contidos no mesmo. As misturas foram efetuadas com o objetivo de estudar a influência da goma arábica na secagem e no sabor das bebidas. Os extratos foram processados em secador por atomização nas condições operacionais médias: temperatura e vazão do ar: 190ºC e 32,1m³/h; alimentação de extrato 340mL/h. Os conteúdos de umidade do pó obtido variaram de 1,8 a 6,6%(bu). Efetuou-se análise sensorial de três formulações com concentrações: 0; 0,2 e 1,0%. Aos resultados experimentais aplicou-se tratamento estatístico e verificou-se maior preferência pela formulação contendo 0,2% de erva-mate, o que mostrou a influência do agente encapsulante na retenção de aromas.

Equivalência de dulçor e poder edulcorante de edulcorantes em função da temperatura de consumo em bebidas preparadas com chá-mate em pó solúvel

No presente estudo foi verificado o efeito da temperatura de consumo na equivalência de doçura e no poder edulcorante de diferentes agentes adoçantes em bebida de chá-mate em pó solúvel. Foram avaliados: aspartame, sucralose, mistura ciclamato/sacarina 2:1, Stevia e acessulfame-K, tendo como referência a sacarose. Todos os estudos foram realizados a 6±2ºC e a 45±2ºC. Primeiramente foi determinada a doçura ideal, utillizando-se escala do ideal com 30 provadores consumidores da bebida. Em seguida, foi determinada a doçura equivalente à sacarose (na doçura considerada ideal) para cada edulcorante estudado, e seu poder edulcorante nas duas temperaturas de estudo. Para tal foi aplicado o método de estimação de magnitude, utilizando-se uma equipe de 10 provadores selecionados e treinados. A doçura ideal de sacarose foi de 8,3% para a bebida de chá-mate solúvel, sem diferença significativa entre as temperaturas de estudo. Ocorreram diferenças sensoriais importantes em função da temperatura, pois, enquanto para alguns edulcorantes o aumento de temperatura provocou diminuição na potência edulcorante, para outros foi observado aumento do poder edulcorante. Portanto, não se deve generalizar as alterações no poder edulcorante em função da temperatura, pois ela pode variar em função da classe química envolvida e do meio de dispersão em que se encontra.

Radiometric studies of mycobacterium tuberculosis

An in vitro assay system that included automated radiometric quantification of 14CO2 released as a result of oxidation of 14C- substrates was applied for studying the metabolic activity of M. tuberculosis under various experimental conditions. These experiments included the study of a) mtabolic pathways, b) detection times for various inoculum sizes, c) effect of filtration on reproducibility of results, d) influence of stress environment e) minimal inhibitory concentrations for isoniazid, streptomycin, ethambutol and rifampin, and f) generation times of M. tuberculosis and M. bovis. These organisms were found to metabolize 14C-for-mate, (U-14C) acetate, (U-14C) glycerol, (1-14C) palmitic acid, 1-14C) lauric acid, (U-14C) L-malic acid, (U-14C) D-glucose, and (U-14C) D-glucose, but not (1-14C) L-glucose, (U-14C) glycine, or (U-14C) pyruvate to 14CO2. By using either 14C-for-mate, (1-14C) palmitic acid, or (1-14C) lauric acid, 10(7) organisms/vial could be detected within 24 48 hours and as few as 10 organisms/vial within 16-20 days. Reproducible results could be obtained without filtering the bacterial suspension, provided that the organisms were grown in liquid 7H9 medium with 0.05% polysorbate 80 and homogenized prior to the study. Drugs that block protein synthesis were found to have lower minimal inhibitory concentrations with the radiometric method when compared to the conventional agar dilution method. The mean generation time obtained for M. bovis and different strains of M. tuberculosis with various substrates was 9 ± 1 hours.

Molecular characterization of environmental Cryptococcus neoformans isolated in Vitoria, ES, Brazil

Cryptococcus neoformans is the major cause of fungal meningitis, a potentially lethal mycosis. Bird excreta can be considered a significant environmental reservoir of this species in urban areas, thirty-three samples of pigeon excreta were collected within the city of Vitoria, Brazil. Cryptococcus neoformans was isolated and identified using standard biochemical assays in ten samples. PCR amplification with primer M13 and orotidine monophosphate pyrophosphorylase (URA5) gene-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis discerned serotypes and genotypes within this species. All isolates were serotype A (C. neoformans var. grubii) and genotype VNI. The two alternative alleles a and α at the mating type locus were determined by PCR amplification and mating assays performed on V8 medium. All isolates were MAT α mating type but only 50% were able to mate in vitro with the opposite mating type MAT a tester strains (JEC20, KN99a and Bt63). This study adds information on the ecology and molecular characterization of C. neoformans in the Southeast region of Brazil.

Induction of male sterility through manipulation of genetic mechanisms present in vector species of Triatominae. II. Partial restoration of male fertility

The development of integrated measures which involve sterile mate release to supplement the conventional insecticidal techniques used in controlagainst insects of medical importance, raised the question, whether the vectors of Chagas'disease possess the natural mechanisms by manipulation of which they may be controlled. Results of earlier expenments, that had been published previously, were restricted to fragmentary information that raised various questions, the answer to which became available in the study herein described. Interspecific hybrids were produced from reciprocal crosses between T. pseudomaculata and T. sórdida and from unilateral crosses between female T. pseudomaculata and male. T. infestans. These females mated with males, laid less than the normal complement of eggs, but offspring was relatively abundant. When T. pseudomaculata females were paired with T. brasiliensis males, hybridization was more difficult because few of the females mated and those that did had a strongly reduced fertility. Adults emerged from ali crosses but exhibited sex disproportion, females predominating in all populations but one. The two Rhodnius species tested were also found to cross, but only when female R. prolixus were paired with male R. neglectus. These females laid a relatively high complement o f eggs, had a strongly reduced fertility, but 50% of the fertile eggs developed into vigorous adults, males predominating females. Neither type of hybrid male elicited fertilized eggs from either parental type of female, through their vesicula seminal is were found to be packed with spermatozoa, some normal looking and moving, others underdeveloped and motionless. Although, no artificial insemination was performed, the sperm in itself did not appear to be the prime inducer of sterility. Females paired with these hybrids did mate, sperm was transfered, as evidenced by the discharged spermatophores smeared with sperm, but did notcontain spermatozoa in their spermatecae. The failure of the sperm to migrate to the spermatecae indicate prezygotic pos-copulation incompatibility, thus the hybrid male can't be used to suppress populations. The female hybrids mated with parent males of either species had reduced fertility and ther sons were sterile as were those of their fertile daughters. However, continous backcrossing of the hybrid females and their female progeny to parental males partially restored fertility of the males and increased fertility of females, as scored by egg hatchability. Fertility of hybrid females, measured by the yield of adults capable to reproduce, indicated that the reproductive perfomance decreased when hybrid females and their daughters were backcrossed additional generations to parental males. It is tentatively suggested that hybrid females could be used for suppression if they compete efficiently with wild females.

Comparação entre os resultados do índice de normalização internacional medidos em dispositivo portátil (Hemochron Jr.) e por metodologia convencional

OBJETIVO: Comparar os resultados do Índice de Normalização Internacional (INR) obtidos pelo teste rápido com os do método convencional nos pacientes em terapia de anticoagulação oral com varfarina sódica. MÉTODOS: Para 383 pacientes tratados com varfarina (idade média: 56,5 anos; 207 mulheres), o INR foi determinado em sangue capilar pelo equipamento Hemochron Jr. e comparado com os resultados de amostras de plasma venoso analisadas pelo teste convencional realizado em equipamento Coag-A-Mate. Foram avaliados os resultados do desempenho global das amostras e dos seguintes subgrupos: INR < 2,0, entre 2,0 a 3,5 e > 3,5. RESULTADOS: A comparação entre os valores de INR dos dois métodos resultou em um coeficiente de correlação (r) de 0,86. Entretanto, a análise das diferenças médias entre os resultados dos dois testes, considerando os três subgrupos, apresentou diferenças estatisticamente significativas (p < 0,001): 0,14 ± 0,21 (INR < 2,0); 0,54 ± 0,31 (2,0 < INR < 3,5) e 1,64 ± 1,10 (INR> 3,5). O cálculo do teste t-pareado de Student resultou em um p < 0,001 para os três subgrupos analisados. CONCLUSÃO: A adoção do teste rápido para monitoramento da anticoagulação oral apresenta restrições. Esse método subestimou a intensidade da anticoagulação nos três subgrupos estudados.

Dissecando o GEN

In thee present paper the classical concept of the corpuscular gene is dissected out in order to show the inconsistency of some genetical and cytological explanations based on it. The author begins by asking how do the genes perform their specific functions. Genetists say that colour in plants is sometimes due to the presence in the cytoplam of epidermal cells of an organic complex belonging to the anthocyanins and that this complex is produced by genes. The author then asks how can a gene produce an anthocyanin ? In accordance to Haldane's view the first product of a gene may be a free copy of the gene itself which is abandoned to the nucleus and then to the cytoplasm where it enters into reaction with other gene products. If, thus, the different substances which react in the cell for preparing the characters of the organism are copies of the genes then the chromosome must be very extravagant a thing : chain of the most diverse and heterogeneous substances (the genes) like agglutinins, precipitins, antibodies, hormones, erzyms, coenzyms, proteins, hydrocarbons, acids, bases, salts, water soluble and insoluble substances ! It would be very extrange that so a lot of chemical genes should not react with each other. remaining on the contrary, indefinitely the same in spite of the possibility of approaching and touching due to the stato of extreme distension of the chromosomes mouving within the fluid medium of the resting nucleus. If a given medium becomes acid in virtue of the presence of a free copy of an acid gene, then gene and character must be essentially the same thing and the difference between genotype and phenotype disappears, epigenesis gives up its place to preformation, and genetics goes back to its most remote beginnings. The author discusses the complete lack of arguments in support of the view that genes are corpuscular entities. To show the emharracing situation of the genetist who defends the idea of corpuscular genes, Dobzhansky's (1944) assertions that "Discrete entities like genes may be integrated into systems, the chromosomes, functioning as such. The existence of organs and tissues does not preclude their cellular organization" are discussed. In the opinion of the present writer, affirmations as such abrogate one of the most important characteristics of the genes, that is, their functional independence. Indeed, if the genes are independent, each one being capable of passing through mutational alterations or separating from its neighbours without changing them as Dobzhansky says, then the chromosome, genetically speaking, does not constitute a system. If on the other hand, theh chromosome be really a system it will suffer, as such, the influence of the alteration or suppression of the elements integrating it, and in this case the genes cannot be independent. We have therefore to decide : either the chromosome is. a system and th genes are not independent, or the genes are independent and the chromosome is not a syntem. What cannot surely exist is a system (the chromosome) formed by independent organs (the genes), as Dobzhansky admits. The parallel made by Dobzhansky between chromosomes and tissues seems to the author to be inadequate because we cannot compare heterogeneous things like a chromosome considered as a system made up by different organs (the genes), with a tissue formed, as we know, by the same organs (the cells) represented many times. The writer considers the chromosome as a true system and therefore gives no credit to the genes as independent elements. Genetists explain position effects in the following way : The products elaborated by the genes react with each other or with substances previously formed in the cell by the action of other gene products. Supposing that of two neighbouring genes A and B, the former reacts with a certain substance of the cellular medium (X) giving a product C which will suffer the action, of the latter (B). it follows that if the gene changes its position to a place far apart from A, the product it elaborates will spend more time for entering into contact with the substance C resulting from the action of A upon X, whose concentration is greater in the proximities of A. In this condition another gene produtc may anticipate the product of B in reacting with C, the normal course of reactions being altered from this time up. Let we see how many incongruencies and contradictions exist in such an explanation. Firstly, it has been established by genetists that the reaction due.to gene activities are specific and develop in a definite order, so that, each reaction prepares the medium for the following. Therefore, if the medium C resulting from the action of A upon x is the specific medium for the activity of B, it follows that no other gene, in consequence of its specificity, can work in this medium. It is only after the interference of B, changing the medium, that a new gene may enter into action. Since the genotype has not been modified by the change of the place of the gene, it is evident that the unique result we have to attend is a little delay without seious consequence in the beginning of the reaction of the product of B With its specific substratum C. This delay would be largely compensated by a greater amount of the substance C which the product of B should found already prepared. Moreover, the explanation did not take into account the fact that the genes work in the resting nucleus and that in this stage the chromosomes, very long and thin, form a network plunged into the nuclear sap. in which they are surely not still, changing from cell to cell and In the same cell from time to time, the distance separating any two genes of the same chromosome or of different ones. The idea that the genes may react directly with each other and not by means of their products, would lead to the concept of Goidschmidt and Piza, in accordance to which the chromosomes function as wholes. Really, if a gene B, accustomed to work between A and C (as for instance in the chromosome ABCDEF), passes to function differently only because an inversion has transferred it to the neighbourhood of F (as in AEDOBF), the gene F must equally be changed since we cannot almH that, of two reacting genes, only one is modified The genes E and A will be altered in the same way due to the change of place-of the former. Assuming that any modification in a gene causes a compensatory modification in its neighbour in order to re-establich the equilibrium of the reactions, we conclude that all the genes are modified in consequence of an inversion. The same would happen by mutations. The transformation of B into B' would changeA and C into A' and C respectively. The latter, reacting withD would transform it into D' and soon the whole chromosome would be modified. A localized change would therefore transform a primitive whole T into a new one T', as Piza pretends. The attraction point-to-point by the chromosomes is denied by the nresent writer. Arguments and facts favouring the view that chromosomes attract one another as wholes are presented. A fact which in the opinion of the author compromises sereously the idea of specific attraction gene-to-gene is found inthe behavior of the mutated gene. As we know, in homozygosis, the spme gene is represented twice in corresponding loci of the chromosomes. A mutation in one of them, sometimes so strong that it is capable of changing one sex into the opposite one or even killing the individual, has, notwithstading that, no effect on the previously existing mutual attraction of the corresponding loci. It seems reasonable to conclude that, if the genes A and A attract one another specifically, the attraction will disappear in consequence of the mutation. But, as in heterozygosis the genes continue to attract in the same way as before, it follows that the attraction is not specific and therefore does not be a gene attribute. Since homologous genes attract one another whatever their constitution, how do we understand the lack cf attraction between non homologous genes or between the genes of the same chromosome ? Cnromosome pairing is considered as being submitted to the same principles which govern gametes copulation or conjugation of Ciliata. Modern researches on the mating types of Ciliata offer a solid ground for such an intepretation. Chromosomes conjugate like Ciliata of the same variety, but of different mating types. In a cell there are n different sorts of chromosomes comparable to the varieties of Ciliata of the same species which do not mate. Of each sort there are in the cell only two chromosomes belonging to different mating types (homologous chromosomes). The chromosomes which will conjugate (belonging to the same "variety" but to different "mating types") produce a gamone-like substance that promotes their union, being without action upon the other chromosomes. In this simple way a single substance brings forth the same result that in the case of point-to-point attraction would be reached through the cooperation of as many different substances as the genes present in the chromosome. The chromosomes like the Ciliata, divide many times before they conjugate. (Gonial chromosomes) Like the Ciliata, when they reach maturity, they copulate. (Cyte chromosomes). Again, like the Ciliata which aggregate into clumps before mating, the chrorrasrmes join together in one side of the nucleus before pairing. (.Synizesis). Like the Ciliata which come out from the clumps paired two by two, the chromosomes leave the synizesis knot also in pairs. (Pachytene) The chromosomes, like the Ciliata, begin pairing at any part of their body. After some time the latter adjust their mouths, the former their kinetochores. During conjugation the Ciliata as well as the chromosomes exchange parts. Finally, the ones as the others separate to initiate a new cycle of divisions. It seems to the author that the analogies are to many to be overlooked. When two chemical compounds react with one another, both are transformed and new products appear at the and of the reaction. In the reaction in which the protoplasm takes place, a sharp difference is to be noted. The protoplasm, contrarily to what happens with the chemical substances, does not enter directly into reaction, but by means of products of its physiological activities. More than that while the compounds with Wich it reacts are changed, it preserves indefinitely its constitution. Here is one of the most important differences in the behavior of living and lifeless matter. Genes, accordingly, do not alter their constitution when they enter into reaction. Genetists contradict themselves when they affirm, on the one hand, that genes are entities which maintain indefinitely their chemical composition, and on the other hand, that mutation is a change in the chemica composition of the genes. They are thus conferring to the genes properties of the living and the lifeless substances. The protoplasm, as we know, without changing its composition, can synthesize different kinds of compounds as enzyms, hormones, and the like. A mutation, in the opinion of the writer would then be a new property acquired by the protoplasm without altering its chemical composition. With regard to the activities of the enzyms In the cells, the author writes : Due to the specificity of the enzyms we have that what determines the order in which they will enter into play is the chemical composition of the substances appearing in the protoplasm. Suppose that a nucleoproteln comes in relation to a protoplasm in which the following enzyms are present: a protease which breaks the nucleoproteln into protein and nucleic acid; a polynucleotidase which fragments the nucleic acid into nucleotids; a nucleotidase which decomposes the nucleotids into nucleoids and phosphoric acid; and, finally, a nucleosidase which attacs the nucleosids with production of sugar and purin or pyramidin bases. Now, it is evident that none of the enzyms which act on the nucleic acid and its products can enter into activity before the decomposition of the nucleoproteln by the protease present in the medium takes place. Leikewise, the nucleosidase cannot works without the nucleotidase previously decomposing the nucleotids, neither the latter can act before the entering into activity of the polynucleotidase for liberating the nucleotids. The number of enzyms which may work at a time depends upon the substances present m the protoplasm. The start and the end of enzym activities, the direction of the reactions toward the decomposition or the synthesis of chemical compounds, the duration of the reactions, all are in the dependence respectively o fthe nature of the substances, of the end products being left in, or retired from the medium, and of the amount of material present. The velocity of the reaction is conditioned by different factors as temperature, pH of the medium, and others. Genetists fall again into contradiction when they say that genes act like enzyms, controlling the reactions in the cells. They do not remember that to cintroll a reaction means to mark its beginning, to determine its direction, to regulate its velocity, and to stop it Enzyms, as we have seen, enjoy none of these properties improperly attributed to them. If, therefore, genes work like enzyms, they do not controll reactions, being, on the contrary, controlled by substances and conditions present in the protoplasm. A gene, like en enzym, cannot go into play, in the absence of the substance to which it is specific. Tne genes are considered as having two roles in the organism one preparing the characters attributed to them and other, preparing the medium for the activities of other genes. At the first glance it seems that only the former is specific. But, if we consider that each gene acts only when the appropriated medium is prepared for it, it follows that the medium is as specific to the gene as the gene to the medium. The author concludes from the analysis of the manner in which genes perform their function, that all the genes work at the same time anywhere in the organism, and that every character results from the activities of all the genes. A gene does therefore not await for a given medium because it is always in the appropriated medium. If the substratum in which it opperates changes, its activity changes correspondingly. Genes are permanently at work. It is true that they attend for an adequate medium to develop a certain actvity. But this does not mean that it is resting while the required cellular environment is being prepared. It never rests. While attending for certain conditions, it opperates in the previous enes It passes from medium to medium, from activity to activity, without stopping anywhere. Genetists are acquainted with situations in which the attended results do not appear. To solve these situations they use to make appeal to the interference of other genes (modifiers, suppressors, activators, intensifiers, dilutors, a. s. o.), nothing else doing in this manner than displacing the problem. To make genetcal systems function genetists confer to their hypothetical entities truly miraculous faculties. To affirm as they do w'th so great a simplicity, that a gene produces an anthocyanin, an enzym, a hormone, or the like, is attribute to the gene activities that onlv very complex structures like cells or glands would be capable of producing Genetists try to avoid this difficulty advancing that the gene works in collaboration with all the other genes as well as with the cytoplasm. Of course, such an affirmation merely means that what works at each time is not the gene, but the whole cell. Consequently, if it is the whole cell which is at work in every situation, it follows that the complete set of genes are permanently in activity, their activity changing in accordance with the part of the organism in which they are working. Transplantation experiments carried out between creeper and normal fowl embryos are discussed in order to show that there is ro local gene action, at least in some cases in which genetists use to recognize such an action. The author thinks that the pleiotropism concept should be applied only to the effects and not to the causes. A pleiotropic gene would be one that in a single actuation upon a more primitive structure were capable of producing by means of secondary influences a multiple effect This definition, however, does not preclude localized gene action, only displacing it. But, if genetics goes back to the egg and puts in it the starting point for all events which in course of development finish by producing the visible characters of the organism, this will signify a great progress. From the analysis of the results of the study of the phenocopies the author concludes that agents other than genes being also capaole of determining the same characters as the genes, these entities lose much of their credit as the unique makers of the organism. Insisting about some points already discussed, the author lays once more stress upon the manner in which the genes exercise their activities, emphasizing that the complete set of genes works jointly in collaboration with the other elements of the cell, and that this work changes with development in the different parts of the organism. To defend this point of view the author starts fron the premiss that a nerve cell is different from a muscle cell. Taking this for granted the author continues saying that those cells have been differentiated as systems, that is all their parts have been changed during development. The nucleus of the nerve cell is therefore different from the nucleus of the muscle cell not only in shape, but also in function. Though fundamentally formed by th same parts, these cells differ integrally from one another by the specialization. Without losing anyone of its essenial properties the protoplasm differentiates itself into distinct kinds of cells, as the living beings differentiate into species. The modified cells within the organism are comparable to the modified organisms within the species. A nervo and a muscle cell of the same organism are therefore like two species originated from a common ancestor : integrally distinct. Like the cytoplasm, the nucleus of a nerve cell differs from the one of a muscle cell in all pecularities and accordingly, nerve cell chromosomes are different from muscle cell chromosomes. We cannot understand differentiation of a part only of a cell. The differentiation must be of the whole cell as a system. When a cell in the course of development becomes a nerve cell or a muscle cell , it undoubtedly acquires nerve cell or muscle cell cytoplasm and nucleus respectively. It is not admissible that the cytoplasm has been changed r.lone, the nucleus remaining the same in both kinds of cells. It is therefore legitimate to conclude that nerve ceil ha.s nerve cell chromosomes and muscle cell, muscle cell chromosomes. Consequently, the genes, representing as they do, specific functions of the chromossomes, are different in different sorts of cells. After having discussed the development of the Amphibian egg on the light of modern researches, the author says : We have seen till now that the development of the egg is almost finished and the larva about to become a free-swimming tadepole and, notwithstanding this, the genes have not yet entered with their specific work. If the haed and tail position is determined without the concourse of the genes; if dorso-ventrality and bilaterality of the embryo are not due to specific gene actions; if the unequal division of the blastula cells, the different speed with which the cells multiply in each hemisphere, and the differential repartition of the substances present in the cytoplasm, all this do not depend on genes; if gastrulation, neurulation. division of the embryo body into morphogenetic fields, definitive determination of primordia, and histological differentiation of the organism go on without the specific cooperation of the genes, it is the case of asking to what then the genes serve ? Based on the mechanism of plant galls formation by gall insects and on the manner in which organizers and their products exercise their activities in the developing organism, the author interprets gene action in the following way : The genes alter structures which have been formed without their specific intervention. Working in one substratum whose existence does not depend o nthem, the genes would be capable of modelling in it the particularities which make it characteristic for a given individual. Thus, the tegument of an animal, as a fundamental structure of the organism, is not due to gene action, but the presence or absence of hair, scales, tubercles, spines, the colour or any other particularities of the skin, may be decided by the genes. The organizer decides whether a primordium will be eye or gill. The details of these organs, however, are left to the genetic potentiality of the tissue which received the induction. For instance, Urodele mouth organizer induces Anura presumptive epidermis to develop into mouth. But, this mouth will be farhioned in the Anura manner. Finalizing the author presents his own concept of the genes. The genes are not independent material particles charged with specific activities, but specific functions of the whole chromosome. To say that a given chromosome has n genes means that this chromonome, in different circumstances, may exercise n distinct activities. Thus, under the influence of a leg evocator the chromosome, as whole, develops its "leg" activity, while wbitm the field of influence of an eye evocator it will develop its "eye" activity. Translocations, deficiencies and inversions will transform more or less deeply a whole into another one, This new whole may continue to produce the same activities it had formerly in addition to those wich may have been induced by the grafted fragment, may lose some functions or acquire entirely new properties, that is, properties that none of them had previously The theoretical possibility of the chromosomes acquiring new genetical properties in consequence of an exchange of parts postulated by the present writer has been experimentally confirmed by Dobzhansky, who verified that, when any two Drosophila pseudoobscura II - chromosomes exchange parts, the chossover chromosomes show new "synthetic" genetical effects.

Bases para o estudo da genética de populações dos Hymenoptera em geral e dos Apinae sociais em particular

This paper deals with problems on population genetics in Hymenoptera and particularly in social Apidae. 1) The studies on populations of Hymenoptera were made according to the two basic types of reproduction: endogamy and panmixia. The populations of social Apinae have a mixed method of reproduction with higher percentage of panmixia and a lower of endogamy. This is shown by the following a) males can enter any hive in swarming time; b) males of Meliponini are expelled from hives which does not need them, and thus, are forced to look for some other place; c) Meliponini males were seen powdering themselves with pollen, thus becoming more acceptable in any other hive. The panmixia is not complete owing to the fact that the density of the breeding population as very low, even in the more frequent species as low as about 2 females and 160 males per reproductive area. We adopted as selection values (or survival indices) the expressions according to Brieger (1948,1950) which may be summarised as follows; a population: p2AA + ²pq Aa + q2aa became after selection: x p2AA + 2pq Aa + z q²aa. For alge-braics facilities Brieger divided the three selective values by y giving thus: x/y p2 AA + y/y 2 pq Aa + z/y q²aa. He called x/y of RA and z/y of Ra, that are survival or selective index, calculated in relation to the heterozygote. In our case all index were calculated in relation to the heterozygote, including the ones for haploid males; thus we have: RA surveval index of genotype AA Ra surveval index of genotype aa R'A surveval index of genotype A R'a surveval index of genotype a 1 surveval index of genotype Aa The index R'A ande R'a were equalized to RA and Ra, respectively, for facilities in the conclusions. 2) Panmitic populations of Hymenoptera, barring mutations, migrations and selection, should follow the Hardy-Weinberg law, thus all gens will be present in the population in the inicial frequency (see Graphifc 1). 3) Heterotic genes: If mutation for heterotic gene ( 1 > RA > Ra) occurs, an equilibrium will be reached in a population when: P = R A + Ra - 2R²a _____________ (9) 2(R A + Ra - R²A - R²a q = R A + Ra - 2R²A _____________ (10) 2(R A + Ra - R²A - R²a A heterotic gene in an hymenopteran population may be maintained without the aid of new mutation only if the survival index of the most viable mutant (RA) does not exced the limiting value given by the formula: R A = 1 + √1+Ra _________ 4 If RA has a value higher thah the one permitted by the formula, then only the more viable gene will remain present in the population (see Graphic 10). The only direct proof for heterotic genes in Hymenoptera was given by Mackensen and Roberts, who obtained offspring from Apis mellefera L. queens fertilized by their own sons. Such inbreeding resulted in a rapid loss of vigor the colony; inbred lines intercrossed gave a high hybrid vigor. Other fats correlated with the "heterosis" problem are; a) In a colony M. quadrifasciata Lep., which suffered severely from heat, the percentage of deths omong males was greater .than among females; b) Casteel and Phillips had shown that in their samples (Apis melifera L). the males had 7 times more abnormalities tian the workers (see Quadros IV to VIII); c) just after emerging the males have great variation, but the older ones show a variation equal to that of workers; d) The tongue lenght of males of Apis mellifera L., of Bombus rubicundus Smith (Quadro X), of Melipona marginata Lep. (Quadro XI), and of Melipona quadrifasciata Lep. Quadro IX, show greater variationthan that of workers of the respective species. If such variation were only caused by subviables genes a rapid increasse of homozigoty for the most viable alleles should be expected; then, these .wild populations, supposed to be in equilibrium, could .not show such variability among males. Thus we conclude that heterotic genes have a grat importance in these cases. 4) By means of mathematical models, we came to the conclusion tht isolating genes (Ra ^ Ra > 1), even in the case of mutations with more adaptability, have only the opor-tunity of survival when the population number is very low (thus the frequency of the gene in the breeding population will be large just after its appearence). A pair of such alleles can only remain present in a population when in border regions of two races or subspecies. For more details see Graphics 5 to 8. 5) Sex-limited genes affecting only females, are of great importance toHymenoptera, being subject to the same limits and formulas as diploid panmitic populations (see formulas 12 and 13). The following examples of these genes were given: a) caste-determining genes in the genus Melipona; b) genes permiting an easy response of females to differences in feeding in almost all social Hymenoptera; c) two genes, found in wild populations, one in Trigona (Plebéia) mosquito F. SMITH (quadro XII) and other in Melipona marginata marginata LEP. (Quadro XIII, colonies 76 and 56) showing sex-limited effects. Sex-limited genes affecting only males do not contribute to the plasticity or genie reserve in hymenopteran populations (see formula 14). 6) The factor time (life span) in Hymenoptera has a particular importance for heterotic genes. Supposing one year to be the time unit and a pair of heterotic genes with respective survival indice equal to RA = 0, 90 and Ra = 0,70 to be present; then if the life time of a population is either one or two years, only the more viable gene will remain present (see formula 11). If the species has a life time of three years, then both alleles will be maintained. Thus we conclude that in specis with long lif-time, the heterotic genes have more importance, and should be found more easily. 7) The colonies of social Hymenoptera behave as units in competition, thus in the studies of populations one must determine the survival index, of these units which may be subdivided in indice for egg-laying, for adaptive value of the queen, for working capacity of workers, etc. 8) A study of endogamic hymenopteran populations, reproduced by sister x brother mating (fig. 2), lead us to the following conclusions: a) without selection, a population, heterozygous for one pair of alleles, will consist after some generations (theoretically after an infinite number of generation) of females AA fecundated with males A and females aa fecundated with males a (see Quadro I). b) Even in endogamic population there is the theoretical possibility of the presence of heterotic genes, at equilibrium without the aid of new mutations (see Graphics 11 and 12), but the following! conditions must be satisfied: I - surveval index of both homozygotes (RA e Ra) should be below 0,75 (see Graphic 13); II - The most viable allele must riot exced the less viable one by more than is permited by the following formula (Pimentel Gomes 1950) (see Gra-fic 14) : 4 R5A + 8 Ra R4A - 4 Ra R³A (Ra - 1) R²A - - R²a (4 R²a + 4 Ra - 1) R A + 2 R³a < o Considering these two conditions, the existance of heterotic genes in endogamic populations of Hymenoptera \>ecames very improbable though not - impossible. 9) Genie mutation offects more hymenopteran than diploid populations. Thus we have for lethal genes in diploid populations: u = q2, and in Hymenoptera: u = s, being u the mutation ratio and s the frequency of the mutant in the male population. 10) Three factors, important to competition among species of Meliponini were analysed: flying capacity of workers, food gathering capacity of workers, egg-laying of the queen. In this connection we refer to the variability of the tongue lenght observed in colonies from several localites, to the method of transporting the pollen in the stomach, from some pots (Melliponi-ni storage alveolus) to others (e. g. in cases of pillage), and to the observation that the species with the most populous hives are almost always the most frequent ones also. 11) Several defensive ways used for Meliponini to avoid predation are cited, but special references are made upon the camouflage of both hive (fig. 5) and hive entrance (fig. 4) and on the mimetism (see list in page ). Also under the same heading we described the method of Lestrimelitta for pillage. 12) As mechanisms important for promoting genetic plasticity of hymenopteran species we cited: a) cytological variations and b) genie reserve. As to the former, duplications and numerical variations of chromosomes were studied. Diprion simile ATC was cited as example for polyploidy. Apis mellife-ra L. (n •= 16) also sugests polyploid origen since: a) The genus Melipona, which belongs to a" related tribe, presents in all species so far studied n = 9 chromosomes and b) there occurs formation of dyads in the firt spermatocyte division. It is su-gested that the origin of the sex-chromosome of Apis mellifera It. may be related to the possible origin of diplo-tetraploidy in this species. With regards to the genie reserve, several possible types of mutants were discussed. They were classified according to their survival indices; the heterotic and neutral mutants must be considered as more important for the genie reserve. 13) The mean radius from a mother to a daghter colony was estimated as 100 meters. Since the Meliponini hives swarm only once a year we may take 100 meters a year as the average dispersion of female Meliponini in ocordance to data obtained from Trigona (tetragonisca) jaty F. SMITH and Melipona marginata LEP., while other species may give different values. For males the flying distance was roughly estimated to be 10 times that for females. A review of the bibliography on Meliponini swarm was made (pg. 43 to 47) and new facts added. The population desity (breeding population) corresponds in may species of Meliponini to one male and one female per 10.000 square meters. Apparently the males are more frequent than the females, because there are sometimes many thousands, of males in a swarm; but for the genie frequency the individuals which have descendants are the ones computed. In the case of Apini and Meliponini, only one queen per hive and the males represented by. the spermatozoos in its spermateca are computed. In Meliponini only one male mate with the queen, while queens of Apis mellijera L. are fecundated by an average of about 1, 5 males. (Roberts, 1944). From the date cited, one clearly sees that, on the whole, populations of wild social bees (Meliponini) are so small that the Sewall Wright effect may become of great importance. In fact applying the Wright's formula: f = ( 1/aN♂ + 1/aN♀) (1 - 1/aN♂ + 1/aN♀) which measures the fixation and loss of genes per generation, we see that the fixation or loss of genes is of about 7% in the more frequent species, and rarer species about 11%. The variation in size, tergite color, background color, etc, of Melipona marginata Lep. is atributed to this genetic drift. A detail, important to the survival of Meliponini species, is the Constance of their breeding population. This Constance is due to the social organization, i. e., to the care given to the reproductive individuals (the queen with its sperm pack), to the way of swarming, to the food storage intended to control variations of feeding supply, etc. 14) Some species of the Meliponini are adapted to various ecological conditions and inhabit large geographical areas (e. g. T. (Tetragonisca jaty F. SMITH), and Trigona (Nanno-trigona testaceicornis LEP.) while others are limited to narrow regions with special ecological conditions (e. g. M. fuscata me-lanoventer SCHWARZ). Other species still, within the same geographical region, profit different ecological conditions, as do M. marginata LEP. and M. quadrifasciata LEP. The geographical distribution of Melipona quadrifasciata LEP. is different according to the subspecies: a) subsp anthidio-des LEP. (represented in Fig. 7 by black squares) inhabits a region fron the North of the S. Paulo State to Northeastern Brazil, ,b) subspecies quadrifasciata LEP., (marked in Fig. 7 with black triangles) accurs from the South of S. Paulo State to the middle of the State of Rio Grande do Sul (South Brazil). In the margined region between these two areas of distribution, hi-brid colonies were found (Fig. 7, white circles); they are shown with more details in fig. 8, while the zone of hybridization is roughly indicated in fig. 9 (gray zone). The subspecies quadrifasciata LEP., has 4 complete yellow bands on the abdominal tergites while anthidioides LEP. has interrupted ones. This character is determined by one or two genes and gives different adaptative properties to the subspecies. Figs. 10 shows certains meteorological isoclines which have aproximately the same configuration as the limits of the hybrid zone, suggesting different climatic adaptabilities for both genotypes. The exis-tance of a border zone between the areas of both subspecies, where were found a high frequency of hybrids, is explained as follows: being each subspecies adapted to a special climatic zone, we may suppose a poor adaptation of either one in the border region, which is also a region of intermediate climatic conditions. Thus, the hybrids, having a combination of the parent qualities, will be best adapted to the transition zone. Thus, the hybrids will become heterotic and an equilibrium will be reached with all genotypes present in the population in the border region.

Efeitos de doses crescentes de nitrogênio e da inoculação de bactérias fixadoras de nitrogênio atmosférico, na cultura da soja (Glycine max, Merril)

Para estudar os efeitos de doses crescentes de nitrogênio, na presença e ausencia de Rhizobium, na cultura da soja, foram instalados ensaios em dois solos arenosos pobres em mate ria orgânica dos municipios de Herculandia e de Regente Feijó. No ensaio de Herculandia constatou-se efeitos de Rhizobium, enquanto no de Regente Feijo houve efeitos linear e cúbico das doses de nitrogênio, nao sendo observado efeito de inoculação. Em ambos os casos notaram-se cloroses nos tratamentos sem nitrogênio, todavia no ensaio de Regente Feijo foi temporária enquanto no de Herculândia a clorose persistiu ate o fim do ciclo nas parcelas sem inoculaçao e sem nitrogênio.

Nutrição mineral de hortaliças: XXXIII. acúmulo de matéria seca e de nutrientes pela cultura do jiló (Solanum gilo, cultivar morro grande oblongo)

No intuito de se obter dados básicos para estudos de adubação, plantas de jiló (Solanum gilo cultivar Morro Grande Oblongo), foram coletadas em épocas diversas, situadas em um solo Terra Roxa Estruturada, série "Luiz de Queiroz", Piracicaba. As plantas coletadas aos 30, 55, 80, 105, 130, 155 e 180 dias após a germinação receberam uma adubação fundamental de 100 g da formula 4-12-8 por cova (duas plantas). Quinze dias após aplicou-se 20 g de sulfato de amônio por cova sendo a aplicação repetida 40 dias após. O material coletado foi dividido em folhas, caule e frutos. O jiló apresenta um crescimento lento até aos 105 dias, aumentando bruscamente até ao final do ciclo. Por ocasião do florescimento as folhas apresentam a seguinte concentração em função da mate ria seca: N-4, 5%; P-0, 30%, K-2,00%; Ca-1,21%; Mg-0,22%; S-0,27%; B-50 ppm; Cu-11 ppm; Fe-774 ppm; Mn-69 ppm; Mo-0,5 ppm; Zn-22 ppm. Uma população de 25.000 plantações/ha extrae aos 180 dias (folha + caule + frutos): N-154 kg; P-16 kg; K-164 kg; Ca-60 kg; Mg-20 kg; S-14 kg; B-221 g; Cu-106 g; Fe-1118 g; Mn-490 g; Mo-7,4 g; Zn-147 g. O jilo é uma hortaliça tropical exigente em nutrientes.