How effective is dog culling in controlling zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis? a critical evaluation of the science, politics and ethics behind this public health policy

INTRODUCTION: Zoonotic kala-azar, a lethal disease caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania is considered out of control in parts of the world, particularly in Brazil, where transmission has spread to cities throughout most of the territory and mortality presents an increasing trend. Although a highly debatable measure, the Brazilian government regularly culls seropositive dogs to control the disease. Since control is failing, critical analysis concerning the actions focused on the canine reservoir was conducted. METHODS: In a review of the literature, a historical perspective focusing mainly on comparisons between the successful Chinese and Soviet strategies and the Brazilian approach is presented. In addition, analyses of the principal studies regarding the role of dogs as risk factors to humans and of the main intervention studies regarding the efficacy of the dog killing strategy were undertaken. Brazilian political reaction to a recently published systematic review that concluded that the dog culling program lacked efficiency and its effect on public policy were also reviewed. RESULTS: No firm evidence of the risk conferred by the presence of dogs to humans was verified; on the contrary, a lack of scientific support for the policy of killing dogs was confirmed. A bias for distorting scientific data towards maintaining the policy of culling animals was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Since there is no evidence that dog culling diminishes visceral leishmaniasis transmission, it should be abandoned as a control measure. Ethical considerations have been raised regarding distorting scientific results and the killing of animals despite minimal or absent scientific evidence

In vitro action of antiparasitic drugs, especially artesunate, against Toxoplasma gondii

INTRODUCTION: Toxoplasmosis is usually a benign infection, except in the event of ocular, central nervous system (CNS), or congenital disease and particularly when the patient is immunocompromised. Treatment consists of drugs that frequently cause adverse effects; thus, newer, more effective drugs are needed. In this study, the possible activity of artesunate, a drug successfully being used for the treatment of malaria, on Toxoplasma gondii growth in cell culture is evaluated and compared with the action of drugs that are already being used against this parasite. METHODS: LLC-MK2 cells were cultivated in RPMI medium, kept in disposable plastic bottles, and incubated at 36ºC with 5% CO2. Tachyzoites of the RH strain were used. The following drugs were tested: artesunate, cotrimoxazole, pentamidine, pyrimethamine, quinine, and trimethoprim. The effects of these drugs on tachyzoites and LLC-MK2 cells were analyzed using nonlinear regression analysis with Prism 3.0 software. RESULTS: Artesunate showed a mean tachyzoite inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 0.075µM and an LLC MK2 toxicity of 2.003µM. Pyrimethamine was effective at an IC50 of 0.482µM and a toxicity of 11.178µM. Trimethoprim alone was effective against the in vitro parasite. Cotrimoxazole also was effective against the parasite but at higher concentrations than those observed for artesunate and pyrimethamine. Pentamidine and quinine had no inhibitory effect over tachyzoites. CONCLUSIONS: Artesunate is proven in vitro to be a useful alternative for the treatment of toxoplasmosis, implying a subsequent in vivo effect and suggesting the mechanism of this drug against the parasite.

Medium-term cryopreservation of rabies virus samples

Introduction The cryopreservation of rabies virus has been described in detail in the literature. To date, little information is available on the use of cryoprotective agents for cold preservation of this virus, and the available data focus only on short-term virus preservation. In this study, we investigated the medium-term cryopreservation of samples of rabies virus using different cryopreservation protocols. Methods The cryopreservation protocols for the rabies virus samples were performed at -20°C and were divided according to the variables of time and cryoprotectant type used. The laboratory tests (intracerebral inoculation of mice, viral titration and direct immunofluorescence) were performed at regular intervals (360 and 720 days) to assess the viability of the viral samples according to the different preservation techniques used. Results After 1 year of cryopreservation, the fluorescence intensity of intracellular corpuscles of the rabies virus and the median survival time of the mice differed between the positive controls and the treatments with the cryoprotectants. After 2 years, most of the samples subjected to the cryopreservation protocols (including the controls) did not produce fluorescence. However, the virus samples exposed to the cryoprotectant sucrose (68% solution) responded positively in the direct immunofluorescence assay and in the intracerebral inoculation of the mice. Conclusions Medium-term cryopreservation of the rabies virus inactivates the viral sample. However, the cryoprotectant agent sucrose (68%) produces a preservative effect in cryopreserved rabies virus samples.

Cryptococcosis in Atlántico, Colombia: an approximation of the prevalence of this mycosis and the distribution of the etiological agent in the environment

ABSTRACTINTRODUCTION:Cryptococcosis is an invasive disease acquired by inhalation of infectious propagules from the environment. Currently, compulsory notification of the spread of this disease is not required in Colombia. However, reporting of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immune deficiency syndrome cases to the National Surveillance System has suggested that there is a growing population at risk of contracting cryptococcosis. Few studies have described the occurrence of cryptococcosis in Colombia. Therefore, in this study, we examined the pathology of this disease in Atlántico, Colombia and determined the distributions of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii in the environment.METHODS:Clinical samples/isolates were gathered from cases of cryptococcosis previously diagnosed at health institutions in Atlántico, and surveys were completed by clinicians. The environmental study considered 32 sampling points and three tree species, i.e., Quickstick ( Gliricidia sepium ), Almond ( Terminalia catappa ), and Pink trumpet ( Tabebuia rosea ). Environmental and clinical samples/isolates were analyzed for phenotypic and genotypic confirmation.RESULTS:From 1997-2014, 41 cases of cryptococcosis were reported. The mean patient age was 40.5 years (range: 18-63 years); 76% were men, and 78% were HIV positive. Isolation was possible in 38 cases ( C. neoformans , molecular type VNI in 37 cases and C. gattii , molecular type VGI in one case). In 2012-2014, 2,068 environmental samples were analyzed with a positivity of 0.4% ( C. neoformans , molecular type VNI) in Almond and Pink trumpet trees.CONCLUSIONS:Cryptococcus neoformans , molecular type VNI had a higher prevalence than C. gattii and was associated with human exposure and the pathogenesis of cryptococcosis in this geographical region.

Acceptance and potential barriers to effective use of diagnostic tests for visceral leishmaniasis in an urban area in Brazil

Abstract: INTRODUCTION: Acceptance of the IT LEISH(r) and direct agglutination test- made in the Laboratório de Pesquisas Clínicas (DAT-LPC) by healthcare professionals and patients suspected of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in Ribeirão das Neves was evaluated. METHODS: Ninety-two patients and 47 professionals completed three questionnaires. RESULTS: Eighty-eight (96%) patients considered fingertip blood collection a positive test feature, and 86% (37) and 91% of professionals considered the IT LEISH(r) easy to perform and interpret, respectively. All professionals classified the DAT-LPC as simple and easy. CONCLUSIONS: Patients and healthcare professionals in Ribeirão das Neves demonstrated a high degree of acceptance of the IT LEISH(r) and DAT-LPC.

Bilateral giant renal angiomyolipoma associated with hepatic lipoma in a patient with tuberous sclerosis

OBJECTIVE: To report a case of bilateral giant renal angiomyolipoma associated with tuberous sclerosis, with successful treatment, and to review the literature concerning angiomyolipoma treatment. CASE REPORT: Patient with tuberous sclerosis and angiomyolipoma diagnosed by ultrasonography during her pregnancy. At that time, the angiomyolipoma on the right side was 9 cm in diameter. Conservative management was selected during her pregnancy. The patient returned 7 years later, with a 24.7 x 19.2 x 10.7 cm tumor on the right side and another of 13 x 11.5 x 6.5 cm on the left side, in addition to multiple small angiomyolipomas. A nephron-sparing surgery with tumoral enucleation was performed on the right side, and after 3 months, the tumor on the left side was removed. Renal function in the post-operative period was preserved, and contrast medium progression was uniform and adequate in both kidneys. CONCLUSION: We conclude that an angiomyolipoma larger than 4 cm should be removed surgically, since they have a greater growth rate and pose a risk of hemorrhage. Resection of smaller tumors is safe and has decreased morbidity. Tumoral enucleation is an effective treatment method that preserves kidney function.

Is psychodynamic psychotherapy an effective intervention for individuals at ultra-high risk (UHR) of psychosis?: a case report

OBJECTIVE: To report a case and to discuss the use of psychodynamic psychotherapy (PD-P) to treat individuals at ultra-high risk (UHR) of psychosis. METHODS: An individual at UHR was followed up for 24 months. The baseline evaluation included a psychiatric interview, the Structured Interview for Prodromal Symptoms (SIPS), the Scale of Prodromal Symptoms (SOPS), and neuropsychological assessment. He underwent weekly sessions of PD-P for 12 months and was followed up for 12 months after the end of PD-P. The evaluations were at baseline, after 6-, 12-, and 24-month follow-up. No medication was prescribed during the 24-month follow-up. RESULTS: The prodromal symptoms remitted. The initial total score on the SIPS/SOPS was 37 points. After the first 12 months of PD-P, there was a reduction to 12 points on the SIPS/SOPS score, which stabilized in the 24-month follow-up. There was also a slight improvement in his performance on the neuropsychological evaluations. CONCLUSION: This case report suggests that PD-P can reduce prodromal symptoms; nevertheless, a better understanding of the specificity and efficacy of PD-P as an option of treatment for UHR individuals is needed.

Estudos experimentais sôbre a origem do milho

1) It may seem rather strange that, in spite of the efforts of a considerable number of scientists, the problem of the origin of indian corn or maize still has remained an open question. There are no fossil remains or archaeological relics except those which are quite identical with types still existing. (Fig. 1). The main difficulty in finding the wild ancestor- which may still exist - results from the fact that it has been somewhat difficult to decide what it should be like and also where to look for it. 2) There is no need to discuss the literature since an excellent review has recently been published by MANGELSDORF and REEVES (1939). It may be sufficient to state that there are basically two hypotheses, that of ST. HILAIRE (1829) who considered Brazilian pod corn as the nearest relative of wild corn still existing, and that of ASCHERSON (1875) who considered Euchlaena from Central America as the wild ancestor of corn. Later hypotheses represent or variants of these two hypotheses or of other concepts, howewer generally with neither disproving their predecessors nor showing why the new hypotheses were better than the older ones. Since nearly all possible combinations of ideas have thus been put forward, it har- dly seems possible to find something theoretically new, while it is essential first to produce new facts. 3) The studies about the origin of maize received a new impulse from MANGELSDORF and REEVES'S experimental work on both Zea-Tripsacum and Zea-Euchlaena hybrids. Independently I started experiments in 1937 with the hope that new results might be obtained when using South American material. Having lost priority in some respects I decided to withold publication untill now, when I can put forward more concise ideas about the origin of maize, based on a new experimental reconstruction of the "wild type". 4) The two main aspects of MANGELSDORF and REEVES hypothesis are discussed. We agree with the authors that ST. HILAIRE's theory is probably correct in so far as the tunicata gene is a wild type relic gene, but cannot accept the reconstruction of wild corn as a homozygous pod corn with a hermaphroditic tassel. As shown experimentally (Fig. 2-3) these tassels have their central spike transformed into a terminal, many rowed ear with a flexible rachis, while possessing at the same time the lateral ear. Thus no explanation is given of the origin of the corn ear, which is the main feature of cultivated corn (BRIEGER, 1943). The second part of the hypothesis referring to the origin of Euchlaena from corn, inverting thus ASCHERSON's theory, cannot be accepted for several reasons, stated in some detail. The data at hand justify only the conclusion that both genera, Euchlaena and Zea, are related, and there is as little proof for considering the former as ancestor of the latter as there is for the new inverse theory. 5) The analysis of indigenous corn, which will be published in detail by BRIEGER and CUTLER, showed several very primitive characters, but no type was found which was in all characters sufficiently primitive. A genetical analysis of Paulista Pod Corn showed that it contains the same gene as other tunicates, in the IV chromosome, the segregation being complicated by a new gametophyte factor Ga3. The full results of this analysis shall be published elsewhere. (BRIEGER). Selection experiments with Paulista Pod Corn showed that no approximation to a wild ancestor may be obtained when limiting the studies to pure corn. Thus it seemed necessary to substitute "domesticated" by "wild type" modifiers, and the only means for achieving this substitution are hybridizations with Euchlaena. These hybrids have now been analysed init fourth generation, including backcrosses, and, again, the full data will be published elsewhere, by BRIEGER and ADDISON. In one present publication three forms obtained will be described only, which represent an approximation to wild type corn. 6) Before entering howewer into detail, some arguments against ST. HILAIRE's theory must be mentioned. The premendelian argument, referring to the instability of this character, is explained by the fact that all fertile pod corn plants are heterozygous for the dominant Tu factor. But the sterility of the homozygous TuTu, which phenotypically cannot be identified, is still unexplained. The most important argument against the acceptance of the Tunicata faetor as wild type relic gene was removed recently by CUTLER (not yet published) who showed that this type has been preserved for centuries by the Bolivian indians as a mystical "medicine". 7) The main botanical requirements for transforming the corn ear into a wild type structure are stated, and alternative solutions given. One series of these characters are found in Tripsacum and Euchlaena : 2 rows on opposite sides of the rachis, protection of the grains by scales, fragility of the rachis. There remains the other alternative : 4 rows, possibly forming double rows of female and male spikelets, protection of kernels by their glumes, separation of grains at their base from the cob which is thin and flexible. 8) Three successive stages in the reconstruction of wild corn, obtained experimentally, are discussed and illustrated, all characterized by the presence of the Tu gene. a) The structure of the Fl hybrids has already been described in 1943. The main features of the Tunicata hybrids (Fig. -8), when compared with non-tunicate hybrids (Fig. 5-6), consist in the absence of scaly protections, the fragility of the rachis and finally the differentiation of the double rows into one male and one female spikelet. As has been pointed out, these characters represent new phenotypic effects of the tunicate factor which do not appear in the presence of pure maize modifiers. b) The next step was observed among the first backcross to teosinte (Fig. 9). As shown in the photography, Fig. 9D, the features are essencially those of the Fl plants, except that the rachis is more teosinte like, with longer internodes, irregular four-row-arrangement and a complete fragility on the nodes. c) In the next generation a completely new type appeared (Fig. 10) which resembles neither corn nor teosinte, mainly in consequence of one character: the rachis is thin and flexible and not fragile, while the grains have an abscission layer at the base, The medium sized, pointed, brownish and hard granis are protected by their well developed corneous glumes. This last form may not yet be the nearest approach to a wild grass, and I shall try in further experiments to introduce other changes such as an increase of fertile flowers per spikelet, the reduction of difference between terminal and lateral inflorescences, etc.. But the nature of the atavistic reversion is alveadwy such that it alters considerably our expectation when looking for a still existing wild ancestor of corn. 9) The next step in our deductions must now consist in an reversion of our question. We must now explain how we may obtain domesticated corn, starting from a hypothetical wild plant, similar to type c. Of the several changes which must have been necessary to attract the attention of the Indians, the following two seem to me the most important: the disappearance of all abscission layers and the reduction of the glumes. This may have been brought about by an accumulation of mutations. But it seems much more probable to assume that some crossing with a tripsacoid grass or even with Tripsacum australe may have been responsible. In such a cross, the two types of abscission layer would be counterbalanced as shown by the Flhybrids of corn, Tripsacum and Euchlaena. Furthermore in later generations a.tu-allele of Tripsacum may become homozygous and substitute the wild tunicate factor of corn. The hypothesis of a hybrid origin of cultivated corn is not completely new, but has been discussed already by HARSHBERGER and COLLINS. Our hypothesis differs from that of MANGELSDORF and REEVES who assume that crosses with Tripsacum are responsible only for some features of Central and North American corn. 10) The following arguments give indirects evidence in support of our hypothesis: a) Several characters have been observed in indigenous corn from the central region of South America, which may be interpreted as "tripsacoid". b) Equally "zeoid" characters seem to be present in Tripsacum australe of central South-America. c) A system of unbalanced factors, combined by the in-tergeneric cross, may be responsible for the sterility of the wild type tunicata factor when homozygous, a result of the action of modifiers, brought in from Tripsacum together with the tuallele. d) The hybrid theory may explain satisfactorily the presence of so many lethals and semilethals, responsible for the phenomenon of inbreeding in cultivated corn. It must be emphasized that corn does not possess any efficient mechanism to prevent crossing and which could explain the accumulation of these mutants during the evolutionary process. Teosinte which'has about the same mechanism of sexual reproduction has not accumulated such genes, nor self-sterile plants in spite of their pronounced preference for crossing. 11) The second most important step in domestication must have consisted in transforming a four rowed ear into an ear with many rows. The fusion theory, recently revived byLANGHAM is rejected. What happened evidently, just as in succulent pXants (Cactus) or in cones os Gymnosperms, is that there has been a change in phyllotaxy and a symmetry of longitudinal rows superimposed on the original spiral arrangement. 12) The geographical distribution of indigenous corn in South America has been discussed. So far, we may distinguish three zones. The most primitive corn appears in the central lowlands of what I call the Central Triangle of South America: east of the Andies, south of the Amazone-Basin, Northwest of a line formed by the rivers São Prancisco-Paraná and including the Paraguay-Basin. The uniformity of the types found in this extremely large zone is astonishing (BRIEGER and CUTLER). To the west, there is the well known Andian region, characterized by a large number of extremely diverse types from small pop corn to large Cuszco, from soft starch to modified sweet corn, from large cylindrical ears to small round ears, etc.. The third region extends along the atlantic coast in the east, from the Caribean Sea to the Argentine, and is characterized by Cateto, an orange hard flint corn. The Andean types must have been obtained very early, and undoubtedly are the result of the intense Inca agriculture. The Cateto type may be obtained easily by crosses, for instance, of "São Paulo Pointed Pop" to some orange soft corn of the central region. The relation of these three South American zones to Central and North America are not discussed, and it seems essential first to study the intermediate region of Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela. The geograprical distribution of chromosome knobs is rapidly discussed; but it seems that no conclusions can be drawn before a large number of Tripsacum species has been analysed.

Abundance of Conepatus chinga (Carnivora, Mephitidae) and other medium-sized mammals in grasslands of southern Brazil

Between January 2007 and December 2010, the abundance of medium-sized mammals was studied, with special focus on the Molina's hog-nosed skunk, Conepatus chinga (Molina, 1782), at four locations in southern Brazil. In this study, transect line methodology was used to obtain data for Distance Analyses. Transects were traveled by car at night, searching with spotlights along the edges of secondary roads in agricultural landscapes. Along 1,811 km, we obtained 620 observations of 20 mammal species. The most common species was the exotic European hare, Lepus europaeus (Pallas, 1778); the highest abundance estimated for South America was observed in one of the study areas, where its density was estimated as 32 individuals/km². Carnivores were the most commonly recorded mammals, represented by 10 species and comprising 51% of all observations. Molina's hog-nosed skunk occurred in all study areas, but occurred in sufficient numbers to obtain density estimates in only two of the areas. We estimated 1.4 to 3.8 individuals/km², in the first density estimate made by the transect method for a member of Conepatus in the Neotropics. These values are similar to those estimated for North American species of Mephitidae. In Brazil, C. chinga is apparently more abundant in the Pampa biome than in the grasslands of the Atlantic Forest. For two other carnivores, Lycalopex gymnocercus (Fisher, 1814) and Cerdocyon thous (Linnaeus, 1766), we estimated preliminary densities that were similar to those previously cited for different regions.

Diet of Procyon cancrivorus (Carnivora, Procyonidae) in restinga and estuarine environments of southern Brazil

Despite its wide range and abundance on certain habitats, the crab-eating raccoon Procyon cancrivorus (G. Cuvier, 1798) is considered one of the less known Neotropical carnivore species. In the present study we analyzed the diet of P. cancrivorus in a peat forest and in an estuarine island in southernmost Brazil. Fruits of the gerivá palm tree Syagrus romanzoffiana were the most consumed item in the peat forest, followed by insects and mollusks. Small mammals, followed by Bromelia antiacantha (Bromeliaceae) fruits and brachyuran crustaceans were the most frequent items in the estuarine island. Other items found in lower frequencies were Solanum sp., Psidium sp., Smilax sp. and Dyospiros sp. fruits, diplopods, scorpions, fishes, anuran amphibians, reptiles (black tegu lizard and snakes), birds and medium-sized mammals (white-eared opossum, armadillo and coypu). Levin’s index values (peat forest: 0.38; estuarine island: 0.45) indicate an approximation to a median position between a specialist and a well distributed diet. Pianka’s index (0.80) showed a considerable diet similarity between the two systems. Procyon cancrivorus presented a varied diet in the studied areas and may play an important role as seed disperser on coastal environments in southernmost Brazil.

Diversity and habitat preference of medium and large-sized mammals in an urban forest fragment of southwestern Amazon

We assessed the species composition and abundance of medium and large-sized mammals in an urban forest fragment in the Brazilian Amazon, and recorded the preference of some species for particular phytophysiognomies. We placed nine transects with 20 sand plots each in three phytophysiognomies: open rainforest with a dominance of bamboos (OFB), open rainforest with palm trees (OFP), and dense rainforest (DF). We calculated species abundance as the number of records/plot.day, in a total of 2,700 plots.day. We recorded twelve mammal species; Sylvilagus brasiliensis (Linnaeus, 1758) and Dasyprocta fuliginosa (Wagler, 1831) were the most abundant. The results differed among phytophysiognomies: DF presented the highest mammal diversity, whereas the species composition of OFP was less similar than that of other phytophysiognomies. Rodents showed higher preference for OFP and Sylvilagus brasiliensis was more abundant in OFB. The study area showed high species richness, with the occurrence of mesopredators, but there was a predominance of common species adaptable to disturbed environments, which reflects the severe isolation degree of the forest fragment and the hunting pressure that is still present.

A selective medium for the isolation of the acinetobacter genus bacteria

A selective and differencial medium was developed for the isolation of Acinetobacter genus bacteria. This Acinobacter Agar Medium (p.H + 7.4) contains in grams per litre: thiotone, 10; yeast extract, 3; naC1, 5; saccharose, 10; mannitol, 10; sodium citrate, 0.5; sodium desoxycholate, 0.1; crystal violet, 0.00025; phenol red, 0.04 and agar-agar 15. This medium has the advantage of inhibiting the growth of cocci and Gram-positive bacilli, by the use of sodium citrate and sodium desoxycholate associated with the crystal violet; and of differentiating the Gram-negative bacilli from the Enterobacteriaceae, through the fermentative activity upon the saccharose and/or mannitol, contrasting with the complete inactivity of the Acinetobacter genus bacteria over those substances.

Liquid nitrogen cryopreservation of Bracoccidioides brasiliensis in Fava's Netto medium

The aplicability of Fava's Netto medium in the liquid nitrogen cryopreservation technique of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis cells was demonstrated.