Biomassa microbiana e produção de C-CO2 e N mineral de um podzólico vermelho-escuro submetido a diferentes sistemas de manejo: Microbial biomass and C-CO2 and mineral nitrogen production in paleudult soil cultivated under different management systems

Os sistemas de manejo, com diferenças no revolvimento do solo e na composição dos resíduos vegetais, alteram as propriedades biológicas do solo, com reflexos na qualidade do solo e na produtividade das culturas. Com vistas em medir estas alterações nas propriedades biológicas do solo, a biomassa e a atividade microbiana foram avaliadas em um Podzólico Vermelho-Escuro, em Eldorado do Sul (RS), utilizando diferentes preparos (convencional, reduzido e plantio direto) e dois sistemas de sucessões de culturas (aveia preta + vica/milho + caupi e aveia/milho). As avaliações foram realizadas em quatro épocas, durante 12 meses, e em duas profundidades (0-5 e 5-15 cm). O carbono da biomassa microbiana foi analisado pelo método de fumigação-incubação, e a atividade microbiana, pela produção de C-CO2 e N mineral, após 60 dias de incubação. As diferenças na biomassa e na atividade microbiana, entre os sistemas de manejo, foram mais pronunciadas na camada de 0-5 cm. Nesta camada de solo, observaram-se os maiores valores de biomassa e de atividade nos preparos conservacionistas e no sistema aveia + vica/milho + caupi. Dentre as variáveis estudadas, a mineralização de N mostrou-se a mais sensível aos manejos, à profundidade e à época de amostragem.

Efeito de sistemas de preparo e de cultura na dinâmica da matéria orgânica e na mitigação das emissões de CO2

Neste estudo, ajustou-se um modelo exponencial de primeira ordem aos dados de carbono orgânico (CO) e N total (NT) do solo, do 5º e 9º ano de um experimento instalado em um Podzólico Vermelho-Escuro, em Eldorado do Sul (RS). Determinaram-se os parâmetros da dinâmica da matéria orgânica e simularam-se os estoques de CO e NT do solo em três sistemas de preparo (convencional-PC, reduzido-PR e plantio direto-PD) e três sistemas de cultura (aveia/milho-A/M, aveia + ervilhaca/milho-A + E/M e aveia + ervilhaca/milho + caupi A + E/M + C). A taxa de decomposição da matéria orgânica do solo diminuiu de 0,054 ano-1, no sistema com lavração e gradagem (PC), para 0,039 ano-1, no solo escarificado (PR), e 0,029 ano-1, no solo não revolvido (PD). Estimou-se que os estoques de CO e NT do solo em 1990 (30,78 Mg ha-1 e 2.200 kg ha-1) diminuirão para 16,11 Mg ha-1 e 1.396 kg ha-1 na combinação PC - A/M. Por sua vez, no sistema PD - A + E/M + C, os estoques de CO e NT do solo em 1990 (32,52 Mg ha-1 e 2.690 Mg ha-1) tenderão a aumentar a estoques estáveis de 54,83 Mg ha-1 e 7.966 kg ha-1, respectivamente. Os sistemas de manejo sem revolvimento do solo e alto aporte de resíduos apresentaram efeito positivo na mitigação das emissões de CO2. Enquanto o sistema PC-A/M apresentou um efluxo líquido (emitido pelo solo > fixado pelas culturas por fotossíntese) de 2,08 Mg CO2 ha-1 para atmosfera no ano de 1994, o sistema PD - A + E/M + C mostrou um influxo líquido (emitido pelo solo < fixado pelas culturas) de CO2 de 1,79 Mg ha-1 ano-1. Atingidos os estoques estáveis de CO no solo estimados pelo modelo, o solo no sistema PD - A + E/M + C terá seqüestrado aproximadamente 142 Mg CO2 ha-1, em comparação ao sistema PC-A/M.

Rotação de culturas no sistema plantio direto em Tibagi (PR): II - Emissões de CO2 e N2O

A atividade agrícola pode alterar a quantidade e qualidade da matéria orgânica do solo (MOS), resultando em emissões de dióxido de carbono (CO2) e óxido nitroso (N2O) do solo para a atmosfera. O sistema plantio direto (SPD) com a utilização de leguminosas em sistemas de rotação é uma estratégia que deve ser considerada tanto para o aumento da quantidade de MOS como para seu efeito na redução das emissões dos gases de efeito estufa. Com o objetivo de determinar os fluxos de gases do efeito estufa (CO2 e N2O) do solo, um experimento foi instalado em Tibagi (PR), em um Latossolo Vermelho distroférrico textura argilosa. Os tratamentos, dispostos em faixas não casualizadas com parcelas subdivididas, foram: sistema plantio direto por 12 anos com sucessões milho/trigo e soja/trigo (PD12 M/T e PD12 S/T, respectivamente) e por 22 anos (PD22 M/T e PD22 S/T, respectivamente). As emissões de CO2 do solo foram aproximadamente 20 % mais elevadas no PD22 em relação ao PD12. As emissões de CO2 apresentaram correlação significativa (R² = 0,85; p < 0,05) com a temperatura do solo, com emissões médias 40 % menores, registradas nos meses com temperaturas mais baixas. As emissões mais elevadas de N2O foram observadas após a colheita das culturas de verão, sobretudo na sucessão milho/trigo, em relação à sucessão soja/trigo. As emissões de N2O foram aproximadamente 25 % maiores após aplicação do fertilizante nitrogenado na cultura do trigo nas duas sucessões e apresentaram correlação significativa (R² = 0,88; p < 0,01) com o grau de saturação de água no solo (Sr %).

CO2, CH4 and N2O fluxes in an Ultisol treated with sewage sludge and cultivated with castor bean

Organic residue application into soil alter the emission of gases to atmosphere and CO2, CH4, N2O may contribute to increase the greenhouse effect. This experiment was carried out in a restoration area on a dystrophic Ultisol (PVAd) to quantify greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from soil under castor bean cultivation, treated with sewage sludge (SS) or mineral fertilizer. The following treatments were tested: control without N; FertMin = mineral fertilizer; SS5 = 5 t ha-1 SS (37.5 kg ha-1 N); SS10 = 10 t ha-1 SS (75 kg ha-1 N); and SS20 = 20 t ha-1 SS (150 kg ha-1 N). The amount of sludge was based on the recommended rate of N for castor bean (75 kg ha-1), the N level of SS and the mineralization fraction of N from SS. Soil gas emission was measured for 21 days. Sewage sludge and mineral fertilizers altered the CO2, CH4 and N2O fluxes. Soil moisture had no effect on GHG emissions and the gas fluxes was statistically equivalent after the application of FertMin and of 5 t ha-1 SS. The application of the entire crop N requirement in the form of SS practically doubled the Global Warming Potential (GWP) and the C equivalent emissions in comparison with FertMin treatments.

Seeds enriched with phosphorus and molybdenum improve the contribution of biological nitrogen fixation to common bean as estimated by 15n isotope dilution

Seeds with a high concentration of P or Mo can improve the growth and N accumulation of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), but the effect of enriched seeds on biological N2 fixation has not been established yet. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of seeds enriched with P and Mo on growth and biological N2 fixation of the common bean by the 15N isotope dilution technique. An experiment was carried out in pots in a 2 x 3 x 2 x 2 factorial design in randomized blocks with four replications, comprising two levels of soil applied P (0 and 80 mg kg-1), three N sources (without N, inoculated with rhizobia, and mineral N), two seed P concentrations (low and high), and two seed Mo concentrations (low and high). Non-nodulating bean and sorghum were used as non-fixing crops. The substrate was 5.0 kg of a Red Latosol (Oxisol) previously enriched with 15N and mixed with 5.0 kg of sand. Plants were harvested 41 days after emergence. Seeds with high P concentration increased the growth and N in shoots, particularly in inoculated plants at lower applied P levels. Inoculated plants raised from high P seeds showed improved nodulation at both soil P levels. Higher soil P levels increased the percentage of N derived from the atmosphere (%Ndfa) in bean leaves. Inoculation with the selected strains increased the %Ndfa. High seed P increased the %Ndfa in inoculated plants at lower soil P levels. High seed Mo increased the %Ndfa at lower soil P levels in plants that did not receive inoculation or mineral N. It is concluded that high seed P concentration increases the growth, N accumulation and the contribution of the biological N2 fixation in the common bean, particularly in inoculated plants grown at lower soil P availability.

Long-term C-CO2 emissions and carbon crop residue mineralization in an oxisol under different tillage and crop rotation systems

Soil C-CO2 emissions are sensitive indicators of management system impacts on soil organic matter (SOM). The main soil C-CO2 sources at the soil-plant interface are the decomposition of crop residues, SOM turnover, and respiration of roots and soil biota. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the impacts of tillage and cropping systems on long-term soil C-CO2 emissions and their relationship with carbon (C) mineralization of crop residues. A long-term experiment was conducted in a Red Oxisol in Cruz Alta, RS, Brazil, with subtropical climate Cfa (Köppen classification), mean annual precipitation of 1,774 mm and mean annual temperature of 19.2 ºC. Treatments consisted of two tillage systems: (a) conventional tillage (CT) and (b) no tillage (NT) in combination with three cropping systems: (a) R0- monoculture system (soybean/wheat), (b) R1- winter crop rotation (soybean/wheat/soybean/black oat), and (c) R2- intensive crop rotation (soybean/ black oat/soybean/black oat + common vetch/maize/oilseed radish/wheat). The soil C-CO2 efflux was measured every 14 days for two years (48 measurements), by trapping the CO2 in an alkaline solution. The soil gravimetric moisture in the 0-0.05 m layer was determined concomitantly with the C-CO2 efflux measurements. The crop residue C mineralization was evaluated with the mesh-bag method, with sampling 14, 28, 56, 84, 112, and 140 days after the beginning of the evaluation period for C measurements. Four C conservation indexes were used to assess the relation between C-CO2 efflux and soil C stock and its compartments. The crop residue C mineralization fit an exponential model in time. For black oat, wheat and maize residues, C mineralization was higher in CT than NT, while for soybean it was similar. Soil moisture was higher in NT than CT, mainly in the second year of evaluation. There was no difference in tillage systems for annual average C-CO2 emissions, but in some individual evaluations, differences between tillage systems were noticed for C-CO2 evolution. Soil C-CO2 effluxes followed a bi-modal pattern, with peaks in October/November and February/March. The highest emission was recorded in the summer and the lowest in the winter. The C-CO2 effluxes were weakly correlated to air temperature and not correlated to soil moisture. Based on the soil C conservation indexes investigated, NT associated to intensive crop rotation was more C conserving than CT with monoculture.

Growth, nodulation and nitrogen fixation of cowpea in soils amended with composted tannery sludge

Tannery wastes generation is increasing every year and a suitable method for tannery sludge management is necessary in order to decrease this environmental problem. The composting is recognized as a suitable method for sludge recycling.. The effect of tannery sludge compost (TSC) rates on growth, nodulation and N fixation of cowpea was investigated. Sandy and clayey soils were amended with TSC at rates of 0, 7.5, 15, 30, and 60 t ha-1. The shoot dry weight of cowpea plants 45 days after emergence (DAE) was greater in the TSC-amended than in the unamended soil. In the sandy soil, nodule dry weight increased with TSC application 45 DAE. In the clayey soil, 45 DAE, nodule dry weight decreased with TSC amendment levels greater than 7.5 t ha-1 compared to the unamended control. The application of TSC increased N accumulation in the cowpea plants. The results suggest that cowpea responds differently to TSC depending on the amendment rate and initial soil type.

Soil CO2 flux: a method comparison of closed static chambers in a sugarcane field

A large variety of techniques have been used to measure soil CO2 released from the soil surface, and much of the variability observed between locations must be attributed to the different methods used by the investigators. Therefore, a minimum protocol of measurement procedures should be established. The objectives of this study were (a) to compare different absorption areas, concentrations and volumes of the alkali trapping solution used in closed static chambers (CSC), and (b) to compare both, the optimized alkali trapping solution and the soda-lime trapping using CSC to measure soil respiration in sugarcane areas. Three CO2 absorption areas were evaluated (7; 15 and 20 % of the soil emission area or chamber); two volumes of NaOH (40 and 80 mL) at three concentrations (0.1, 0.25 and 0.5 mol L-1). Three different types of alkaline traps were tested: (a), 80 mL of 0.5 mol L-1 NaOH in glass containers, absorption area 15 % (V0.5); (b) 40 mL of 2 mol L-1 NaOH retained in a sponge, absorption area 80 % (S2) and (c) 40 g soda lime, absorption area 15 % (SL). NaOH concentrations of 0.5 mol L-1 or lower underestimated the soil CO2-C flux or CO2 flux. The lower limit of the alkali trap absorption area should be a minimum of 20 % of the area covered by the chamber. The 2 mol L-1 NaOH solution trap (S2) was the most efficient (highest accuracy and highest CO2 fluxes) in measuring soil respiration.

Uncertainties in the prediction of spatial variability of soil CO2 emissions and related properties

The soil CO2 emission has high spatial variability because it depends strongly on soil properties. The purpose of this study was to (i) characterize the spatial variability of soil respiration and related properties, (ii) evaluate the accuracy of results of the ordinary kriging method and sequential Gaussian simulation, and (iii) evaluate the uncertainty in predicting the spatial variability of soil CO2 emission and other properties using sequential Gaussian simulations. The study was conducted in a sugarcane area, using a regular sampling grid with 141 points, where soil CO2 emission, soil temperature, air-filled pore space, soil organic matter and soil bulk density were evaluated. All variables showed spatial dependence structure. The soil CO2 emission was positively correlated with organic matter (r = 0.25, p < 0.05) and air-filled pore space (r = 0.27, p < 0.01) and negatively with soil bulk density (r = -0.41, p < 0.01). However, when the estimated spatial values were considered, the air-filled pore space was the variable mainly responsible for the spatial characteristics of soil respiration, with a correlation of 0.26 (p < 0.01). For all variables, individual simulations represented the cumulative distribution functions and variograms better than ordinary kriging and E-type estimates. The greatest uncertainties in predicting soil CO2 emission were associated with areas with the highest estimated values, which produced estimates from 0.18 to 1.85 t CO2 ha-1, according to the different scenarios considered. The knowledge of the uncertainties generated by the different scenarios can be used in inventories of greenhouse gases, to provide conservative estimates of the potential emission of these gases.

Efeito do preparo do solo e resíduo da colheita de cana-de-açúcar sobre a emissão de CO2

O solo é um dos principais compartimentos de carbono no ecossistema terrestre, capaz de armazenar quantidades expressivas desse elemento e, portanto, a compreensão dos fatores que contribuem para as perdas de CO2 em solos agrícolas é fundamental para determinar estratégias de redução das emissões desse gás e ajudar a mitigar o efeito estufa. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar o efeito do preparo do solo e da deposição de resíduos da cultura da cana-de-açúcar na emissão de CO2, temperatura e umidade do solo, durante a reforma do canavial, ao longo de um período de 15 dias. Os manejos avaliados foram: sem preparo do solo e mantendo os resíduos da colheita sobre a superfície do solo (SPCR); sem preparo do solo e sem resíduo (SPSR) e com preparo do solo e sem resíduo (CPSR). A menor média de emissão de CO2 do solo (FCO2) foi observada no manejo SPCR (2,16 µmol m-2 s-1), quando comparado aos manejos SPSR (2,90 µmol m-2 s-1) e CPSR (3,22 µmol m-2 s-1), indicando que as maiores umidades e menores variações da temperatura do solo, observadas em SPCR, foram os fatores responsáveis por tal diminuição. Durante o período de estudo, a menor média diária da FCO2 foi registrada em SPCR (1,28 µmol m-2 s-1) e a maior em CPSR (6,08 µmol m-2 s-1), após a ocorrência de chuvas. A menor perda de C-CO2 do solo foi observada no manejo SPCR (367 kg ha-1 de C-CO2), diferindo significativamente (p<0,05) dos manejos: SPSR (502 kg ha-1 de C-CO2) e CPSR (535 kg ha-1 de C-CO2). A umidade do solo foi a variável que apresentou valores mais diferenciados entre os manejos, sendo positivamente correlacionada (r = 0,55; p<0,05) com as variações temporais da emissão de CO2 nos manejos SPCR e CPSR. Em adição, a temperatura do solo diferiu (p<0,05) somente no manejo SPCR (24 ºC), quando comparada aos manejos SPSR (26 ºC) e CPSR (26,5 ºC), sugerindo que, para as condições deste estudo, o resíduo da cana-de-açúcar retido sobre a superfície propiciou uma temperatura do solo, em média, 2 ºC mais amena.

Controle de Rhyzopertha dominica pela atmosfera controlada com CO2, em trigo

A utilização de gases inertes como fumigantes no controle de pragas é uma alternativa ao uso de fosfina. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a eficiência de uma atmosfera com CO2 no controle de Rhyzoperta dominica (Fabr.) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) em grãos de trigo armazenado. O trabalho constou de cinco concentrações de CO2 (0, 30 , 40, 50 e 60%, completadas com N2), três períodos de exposição (5, 10, 15 dias), três populações de R. dominica (Fabr.) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) (Campo Mourão, PR, Sete Lagoas, MG e Santa Rosa, RS) e sete fases de desenvolvimento do inseto (ovo, larva de 1º, 2º, 3º e 4º ínstar, pupa e adulto) com três repetições. As diferentes fases da R. dominica foram acondicionadas em tecido organza e levadas para câmaras de expurgo de 200 litros com 75% deste volume repletos de grãos. As câmaras foram vedadas com borracha de silicone para garantir a hermeticidade. Após a vedação das câmaras injetavam-se os gases contendo diferentes teores de CO2. Os resultados mostraram que todos os teores de CO2 causaram 100% de mortalidade de adultos das três populações nos três períodos de exposição utilizados. Em pupas a mortalidade atingiu 100% no teor de 60% de CO2 para as três populações no período de 15 dias de exposição; porém, todos os teores de CO2 utilizados no período de 15 dias de exposição causaram 100% de mortalidade das pupas da população de Santa Rosa. Para o adequado controle de larvas de diferentes ínstares são necessários teores de CO2 iguais ou acima de 50%. Nos períodos de 10 e 15 dias de exposição, todos os teores de CO2 causaram 100% de mortalidade dos ovos das três populações avaliadas.

Growth and yield of common bean cultivars at two soil phosphorus levels under biological nitrogen fixation

The genotypic differences on growth and yield of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in response to P supply were evaluated in a field experiment under biological N2 fixation. Eight cultivars were grown at two levels of applied P (12 and 50 kg ha-1 of P -- P1 and P2 respectively), in randomized block design in factorial arrangement. Vegetative biomass was sampled at three ontogenetic stages. The effects of genotype and phosphorus were significant for most traits, but not the genotype ´ phosphorus interaction. The cultivars presented different patterns of biomass production and nutrient accumulation, particularly on root system. At P1, P accumulation persisted after the beginning of pod filling, and P translocation from roots to shoots was lower. The nodule senescence observed after flowering might have reduced N2 fixation during pod filling. The responses of vegetative growth to the higher P supply did not reflect with the same magnitude on yield, which increased only 6% at P2; hence the harvest index was lower at P2. The cultivars with highest yields also presented lower grain P concentrations. A sub-optimal supply of N could have limited the expression of the yield potential of cultivars, reducing the genotypic variability of responses to P levels.

Effect of water stress on nitrogen fixation and nodule structure of common bean

The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of water stress on N2 fixation and nodule structure of two common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars Carioca and EMGOPA-201. Plants were harvested after five and eight days of water stress. Carioca had lower nodule dry weight on both water stress periods; shoot dry weight was lower at five days water stress and did not differ from control after eight days stress. Both cultivars had lower nitrogenase activity than control after five and eight days water stress. For both cultivars, after eight days stress bacteroid membranes were damaged. Carioca presented more pronounced damage to infected tissue, with host cell vacuolation and loss of the peribacteroid membrane at five days after stress; at eight days after stress, there was degradation of cytoplasm host cells and senescence of bacteroids, with their release into intercellular spaces. Intensity of immunogold-labeling of intercellular cortical glycoprotein with the monoclonal antibodies MAC 236/265 was different for both cultivars.

Nitrogen fixation by groundnut and velvet bean and residual benefit to a subsequent maize crop

Chemical fertilisers are rarely avaiable to poor farmers, for whom the nitrogen (N) is often the most limiting element for cereal grain production. The objective of this study was to quantify the contribution of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) to groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) and velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) crops using the 15N natural abundance (delta15N) technique and to determine their residual effect and that of a natural fallow, on growth and N accumulation by two rustic maize varieties. The contribution of BNF calculated from delta15N data was 40.9, 59.6 and 30.9 kg ha-1, for groundnut, velvet bean and the natural fallow, respectively. The only legume grain harvested was from the groundnut, which yielded approximately 1.000 kg ha-1. The subsequent maize varieties ("Sol de Manhã" and "Caiana Sobralha") yielded between 1.958 and 2.971 kg ha-1, and were higher after velvet bean for both maize varieties and "Sol da Manhã" groundnut, followed by "Caiana" after groundnut and, finally, the natural fallow. For a small-holder producer the most attractive system is the groundnut followed by maize, as, in this treatment, both groundnut and maize grain harvest are possible. However, a simple N balance calculation indicated that the groundnut-maize sequence would, in the long term, deplete soil N reserves, while the velvet bean-maize sequence would lead to a build up of soil nitrogen.

Genetic characterization and nitrogen fixation capacity of Rhizobium strains on common bean

This study aimed to genetically characterize four new Rhizobium strains, and to evaluate their nodulation and fixation capacity compared to commercial strains and to native rhizobia population of a Brazilian Rhodic Hapludox. Two experiments were carried out in randomized blocks design, under greenhouse conditions, in 2007. In the first experiment, the nodulation and nitrogen fixation capacity of new strains were evaluated, in comparison to the commercial strains CIAT-899 and PRF-81 and to native soil population. It was carried out in plastic tubes filled with vermiculite. DNA extractions and PCR sequencing of the intergenic space were made from the isolated pure colonies, in order to genetically characterize the strains and the native rhizobia population. In the second experiment, the nodulation and productivity of common beans Perola cultivar were determined, with the use of evaluated strains, alone or in mixture with PRF-81 strain. It was carried out in pots filled with soil. The native soil population was identified as Rhizobium sp. and was inefficient in nitrogen fixation. Three different Rhizobium species were found among the four new strains. The LBMP-4BR and LBMP-12BR new strains are among the ones with greatest nodulation and fixation capacity and exhibit differential responses when mixed to PRF-81.