Copper toxicity for Scinax ruber and Rhinella granulosa (Amphibia: Anura) of the Amazon: Potential of Biotic Ligand Model to predict toxicity in urban streams

In the last years many populations of anurans have declined and extinctions have been recorded. They were related to environmental pollution, changes of land use and emerging diseases. The main objective of this study was to determine copper sensitivity of the anuran of the Amazon Rhinella granulosa and Scinax ruber tadpoles at stage 25 and Scinax ruber eggs exposed for 96 h to copper concentrations ranging from 15 µg Cu L-1 to 94 µg Cu L-1. LC50 at 96 h of Rhinella granulosa Gosner 25, Scinax ruber Gosner 25 and Scinax ruber eggs in black water of the Amazon were 23.48, 36.37 and 50.02 µg Cu L-1, respectively. The Biotic Ligand Model was used to predict the LC50 values for these species and it can be considered a promising tool for these tropical species and water conditions. Copper toxicity depends on water physical-chemical composition and on the larval stage of the tadpoles. The Gosner stage 19-21 (related to the appearance of external gills) is the most vulnerable and the egg stage is the most resistant. In case of contamination by copper, the natural streams must have special attention, since copper is more bioavailable.

Reproductive biology of Macrobrachium surinamicum (Decapoda: Palaemonidae) in the Amazon River mouth

Macrobrachium surinamicum is an indigenous prawn distributed from the lower Amazon and Tocantins river basins to Venezuela in the Orinoco Delta region. It is common bycatch fauna of Macrobrachium amazonicum artisan fishing in the states of Pará and Amapá. The aim of this study was to investigate aspects on reproductive biology (reproductive period, size of sexual maturity population, fecundity, reproductive output and recruitment) of M. surinamicum from four important areas to artisanal prawn fishing located at the Amazon River mouth (Amapá and Pará). The specimens were captured using 20 handcrafted traps called "matapi". A number of 675 prawns were captured, 258 males, 409 females and eight juveniles, resulting in 1:1.6 (Male: Female) sex ratio. The reproductive peak period occurred from March to July, coinciding with the higher rainfall period. The juvenile prawn occurred only in May and July. Total length of egg-bearing females ranged from 12.12 to 38.30 mm, with mean female length at first maturity (L50) of 23.7 mm. Fecundity increased with prawn size and varied between 174 and 1780 eggs per female. Mean egg volume increased gradually from 0.031 (Stage I) to 0.060 mm³ (Stage III) during embryogenesis. Macrobrachium surinamicum depends on brackish water to complete the larval development. Irrespective of female size, reproductive output of M. surinamicum varied between 4.3 % and 35.5 % of their body weight for egg production. The knowledge of the reproductive biology reported in the present study is an important tool to define strategies to preserve M. surinamicum in Amazon River mouth.

Contribuição para o controle biológico da broca da cana de açúcar

Em 5 meses e 20 dias, obtivemos 4 gerações de Metagonis lylum minense Towns, correspondentes a um total de 662 adultos. O ciclo evolutivo completo, varia de 31 a 51 dias com evolução média de 38 dias a 18,9°C. As porcentagens de parasitismo natural em culturas de cana e de milho foram respectivamente de 23,1 e 37,3%. Libertaram-se 526 moscas, obtendo-se um parasitismo de 48,3% para cana de açúcar e 61,1% no milho. Em 12 meses foram criados em laboratório 10 gerações de Lixophaga diatraeae Towns, num total de 915 adultos. O ciclo evolutivo completo, de emergência a emergência do adulto, varia de 30 a 39 dias nos meses de Setembro a Abril, sendo a evolução média de 32,5 dias a 21,4°C e de 33 a 43 dias nos meses de Maio a Agosto com evolução média de 36 dias a 16.9°C. No campo foram libertados 262 adultos de Lixophaga. Do total, 139 distribuídos em cultura de milho (Lote A) e os restantes, em cultura de cana (Lotes B e C). Recuperamos 76 pupários vivos e 38 vazios. A porcentagem total de parasitismo verificado foi de 28,7%. Temos recuperado diversos pupários após um ano das primeiras libertações (1951), o que vem demonstrar que a Lixophaga já se estabeleceu nesta região. Nos meses de Maio a Agosto, a capacidade larval torna-se mais reduzida devido a baixa temperatura. Nesse período, deve- se conservar os adultos em ambiente cuja temperatura seja de 22 a 25°C, a fim de que os mesmos não paralisem sua reprodução.No período da gestação, a Lixophaga demonstrou ser mais resistente do que as outras duas espécies nativas. O potencial de reprodução da Metagonistylum e da Parathersia é maior do que a da Lixophaga. Na técnica de criação e conservação da broca parasitada, utilizamos pontas de cana introduzidas em recipientes contendoágua, uma vez que os roletes são de efêmera duração e precisam ser substituídos constantemente O ciclo médio de Metagonistylum sendo de 38 dias, conforme determinamos e o de Paratheresia de 47 dias de acordo com o trabalho de SOUZA (7), concluímos que o ciclo médio de Lixophaga é menor comparando àquelas espécies. Embora, os parasitos da broca, sejam na natureza, hiper parasitados, em nada vem alterar esse método, um vez que quando o parasito destruir completamente a broca e passar ao estado de prê-pupa, observamos pelas experimentações, que somente nessa fase poderá vir a ser hiperparasitado e assim mesmo em porcentagem insignificante, não indo além de 5%. Pela criação sistemática desses parasitos em larga escala e sua distribuição periódica na cultura de cana, não dependendo, portanto, de sua multiplicação total na natureza, anula-se o efeito do hiperparasitismo e consegue-se reduzir grandemente a infestação ocasionada pela broca.

Estudos sôbre Ascia monuste orseis (GODART, 1818) (Lep., Pierididae)

A biologia de Ascia monuste orseis (Godart, 1818) (Lep., Pierididae) foi estudada. O material utilizado foi coligido em Campinas e Piracicaba (Estado de São Paulo), durante os meses de dezembro de 1951 e janeiro de 1952 e constituiu-se principalmente de posturas do inseto. O número máximo de ovos, obtido de uma fêmea, em condições de laboratório, foi de 202, sendo registradas algumas observações sobre o comportamento da borboleta durante a oviposição na natureza. Os ovos e as posturas são descritos. A incubação exigiu cerca de 4 dias. Durante a vida larvária, a espécie passa por 5 estádios, sofrendo, portanto, 4 ecdises. São descritas as lagartas em tôdas essas idades. O ciclo completo, de ôvo a imago, andou ao redor de 22 dias. O 5º. estádio larval mostrou-se, de todos, o mais longo, consumindo 3 até 6 dias. O período de crisálida abrangeu 6 a 7 dias. Os adultos viveram, em insetário, 5 a 9 dias, quer em presença ou em ausência de uma mecha de algodão hidrófilo em-bebida de uma mistura de água e mel. Unicamente um caso de parasitismo foi verificado, os Autores concluindo que, nestas regiões de São Paulo, na época em que as observações foram feitas, a espécie é muito pouco perseguida por agentes naturais de controle. O parasito foi identificado pelo Professor Luis De Santis, da Universidade de La Plata (Rep. Argentina), como Pteromalus caridei Brèthes, 1913, interessante Hymenoptera da família Pteromalidae. Os Autores procuraram esclarecer a ação do pardal - Passer domesticus domesticus (L.) - com relação às lagartas de A. m. orseis, uma vez que há, entre olericultures, a crença de que o referido Ploceidae constitui inimigo do Lepidoptera em estudo. As observações colhidas não permitiram uma conclusão, sendo, contudo, de molde a negar a ação do pássaro como devorador das lagartas.

Biologia da Arsenura xanthopus (Walker, 1855) ( Lepidoptera - Adelocephalidae ), praga do «Açoita-Cavalo» (Luehea spp.) e notas sôbre seus inimigos naturais

Biology of Arsenura xanthopus (Walker, 1855) (Lep., Adelocephalidae), a pest of Luehea spp. (Tiliaceae), and notes on its natural enemies. In the beginning of 1950, one of the Authors made some observations about the biology of Arsenura xanthopus (Walker), in Piracicaba, State of S. Paulo, Brazil. From 1951 to 1953, both Authors continued the observations on such an important Adelocephalidae, the caterpillars of which represent a serious pest of Luehea spp. leaves. Actually, in some occasions, the caterpillars can destroy completely the leaves of the trees. The species is efficientely controlled by two natural enemies: an egg parasite (Tetrastichus sp., Hym., Eulophidae) and a fly attacking the last instar caterpillar (Winthemia tricolor (van der Wulp), Dip., Tachinidae). Tetrastichus sp. can destroy 100% of the eggs and the fly, 70 to 100% of the caterpillars. Indeed, facts as such are very interesting because we rarely know of a case of so complete a control of a pest by an insect. A. xanthopus had not yet been mentioned in our literature. Actually neither the systematic bibliography nor the economic one has treated of this species. However, a few other species of Arsenura are already known as living on Luehea spp. According to the Authors' observations, W. tricolor was also unknown by the Brazilian entomological literature. Arsenura xanthopus (Walker, 1855) After giving the sinonimy and a few historical data concerning the species, and its geographical distribution, the Authors discuss its placing in the genus Arsenura Duncan or Rhescyntis Huebner, finishing by considering Arsenura xanthopus as a valid name. The Authors put the species in the family Adelocephalidae, as it has been made by several entomologists. The host plant The species of Tiliaceae plants belonging to the genus Luehea are called "açoita-cavalo" and are well known for the usefulness of their largely utilized wood. The genus comprises exclusively American plants, including about 25 species distributed throughout the Latin America. Luehea divaricata Mart, is the best known species and the most commonly cultivated. Biology of Arsenura xanthopus Our observations show that the species passes by 6 larval stages. Eggs and egg-postures, all the 6 instars of the caterpillars as well as the chrysalid are described. The pupal period is the longest of the cycle, taking from 146 to 256 days. Data on the eclosion and habits of the caterpillars are also presented. A redescription of the adult is also given. Our specimens agreed with BOUVIER's description, except in the dimension between the extremities of the extended wings, which is a little shorter (107 mm according to BOUVlErVs paper against from 80 to 100mm in our individuals). Winthemia tricolor (van der Wulp, 1890) Historical data, geographical distribution and host are first related. W. tricolor had as yet a single known host-; Ar^-senura armida (Cramer). This chapter also contains some observations on the biolcn gy of the fly and on its behaviour when trying to lay eggs on the caterpillars' skin. The female of W. tricolor lays from 1 to 33 eggs on the skin of the last instar caterpillar. The mam region of the body where the eggs are laid are the membranous legs. Eggs are also very numerous oh the ventral surface of the thorax and abdomen. The. preference for such regions is easily cleared up considering the position assumed by the caterpillar when fixed motionless in a branch. In such an occasion, the fly approaches, the victim, puts the ovipositor out and lays the eggs on different parts of the body, mainly on the mentioned regions, which are much more easily reached. The eggs of the fly are firmly attached to the host's skin, being almost impossible to detach them, without having them broken. The minute larvae of the fly enter the body of, the host when it transforms into chrysalid. Chrysalids recentely formed and collected in nature f requentely show a few small larvae walking on its skin and looking for an adequate place to get into the body. A few larvae die by remaining in the skin of the caterpillar which is pushed away to some distance by the active movements of the chrysalid recentely formed. From 1 to 10 larvae completely grown may emerge from the attacked chrysalid about 8 days after their penetrating into the caterpillars' body and soon begin to look for an adequate substratum where they can transform themselves into pupae. In natural conditions, the metamorphosis occurs in the soil. The flies appear within 15 days. Tetrastichus sp. This microhymenoptera is economically the most interesting parasite, being commonly able to destroy the whole pos^ ture of the moth. Indeed, some days after the beginning of the infestation of the trees, it is almost impossible to obtain postures completely free of parasites. The active wasp introduces the ovipositor into the egg of the moth, laying its egg inside, from 80 to 120 seconds after having introduced it. A single adult wasp emerges from each egg. Sarcophaga lambens Wiedemann, 1830 During the observations carried out, the Authors obtained 10 flies from a chysalid that were recognized as belonging to the species above. S. lambens is a widely distributed Sarcophagidae, having a long list of hosts. It is commonly obtained from weak or died invertebrates, having no importance as one of their natural enemies. Sinonimy, list of hosts and distribution are presented in this paper. Control of Arsenura xanthopus A test has been carefully made in the laboratory just to find out the best insecticide for controlling A. xanthopus caterpillars. Four different products were experimented (DDT, Pa-rathion, BHC and Fenatox), the best results having been obtained with DDT at 0,25%. However, the Authors believe in spite of the initial damages of the trees, that the application of an insecticide may be harmful by destroying the natural agents of control. A biological desiquilibrium may in this way take place. The introduction of the parasites studied (Tetrastichus sp. and Winthemia tricolor) seems to be the most desirable measure to fight A. xanthopus.

Contribuição para o conhecimento do lepidóptero saturnídeo Rothschildia arethusa (Walker, 1855)

In this paper, the writers present a summary of their investigations on Rothschildia arethusa (Walker, 1855) ( Lepidoptera, Saturniidae ) performed at the Escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de Queiroz", Piracicaba, State of São Paulo, Brazil. The larva was found to feed on "bacupari do mato" (Rheedia sp.) ( Guttiferae ). Some bionomical notes on the larval and pupal stages and the description of the adult are the mainly subject.

Biologia de Glena unipennaria unipennaria (Guenée, 1857) (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) em folhas de Eucalyptus grandis (Hill) Maiden

Este trabalho trata do estudo da biologia de Glena unipennaria unipennaria (Guenée, 1857) (Lepidoptera, Geometridae), cujas lagartas são desfolhadoras e consideradas como praga de grande importância econômica, em povoamentos homogêneos e implantados de Eucalyptus spp. (Myrtaceae), no Brasil. Os insetos foram criados em condições de laboratório (temperatura 25±3°C; UR:70±10; fotoperíodo de 12 horas), no Laboratório de Controle Biológico, do Departamento de Entomologia, da Escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de Queiroz"-USP, em Piracicaba, SP, em 1978. As lagartas foram alimentadas, exclusivamente, com folhas de Eucalyptus grandis (Hill) Maiden. Foram estudados os seguintes parâmetros: período e viabilidade das fases de ovo, lagarta (exceto viabilidade), pré-pupa; número e duração dos ínstares larvais e consumo foliar na fase larval; longevidade dos a dultos e proporção quanto ao sexo. Medidas lineares foram tomadas das cápsulas cefálicas das lagartas, comprimento e maior largura das pupas e envergadura das asas anteriores dos adultos. Aspectos relacionados com o comportamento e morfologia externa também foram observados.

Biologia do bicho do cesto Oiketicus kirbyi (Lands.-Guilding, 1827) (Lepidoptera, Psychidae) em folhas de Eucalyptus spp

O bicho do cesto, Oiketicus kirbyi (Lands.-Guilding, 1827), inseto extremamente polífago, é praga de várias culturas de importância econômica, principalmente na região sul do Brasil. Sua ocorrência em áreas reflorestadas com eucalipto é freqüente, embora não tenha causado, ainda, danos econômicos de monta. Este trabalho trata da biologia deste inseto em folhas de Eucalyptus spp., com a finalidade de trazer subsídios para o caso de eventuais surtos de O. kirbyi em florestas implantadas. O bicho do cesto foi criado em laboratório em temperatura de 25±3°C, umidade relativa de 70± 10% e fotofase de 13 h. Os seguintes valores médios foram obtidos: período embrionário de 43,1 dias, período larval de 140 dias (machos) e 151 dias (fêmeas), período pupal de 38,2 dias (machos), longevidade dos adultos de 3,0 dias (machos) e 3,9 dias (fêmeas) e período de oviposição 2,1 dias. Foram determinadas, também, as dimensões de ovos, pupas, adultos e das cápsulas cefálicas, o número de ínstares larvais, período de cópula, além da estimativa do dano foliar.

Biologia comparada de Nusalala uruguaya (Navás, 1923) (Neuroptera; Hemerobiidae) alimentada com diferentes espécies de afídeos: I. Fase de larva

A fase larval do predador Nusalala uruguaya (Navás, 1923) alimentada com pulgão-preto-dos-citros Toxoptera citricidus (Kirk), pulgão-da-couve Brevicoryne brassicae (L.) e pulgão-do-picao Dactynotus sp. foi estudada, em condições de laboratório à 25 ± 2°C, UR de 70±10% e fotofase de 14 horas. A espécie de presa consumida afetou a fase larval do predador, influenciando a duração e a viabilidade de cada instar, a largura da cápsula cefálica, o peso e o tamanho de suas larvas. Dactynotus sp. foi a espécie mais consumida e que propiciou o melhor desenvolvimento larval, sendo que T. citricidus acarretou 100% de mortalidade no primeiro instar. As larvas de N. uruguaya somente se alimentaram de pre-ovos e larvas da sua própria espécie.

Effects of intraspecific competition and food deprivation on the immature phase of Ascia monuste orseis (Lepidoptera, Pieridae)

The effect of intraspecific competition for food on larvae and of food deprivation for 24 h on 2nd and 4th instars of Ascia monuste orseis (Godart, 1819) was investigated. Intraspecific competition for food during the immature phase leads to long pupation time, high larval mortality, reduced adult weight, and reduced number of eggs per female. In food deprivation experiments, the major differences in A. monuste orseis performance were long pupation time in the group that was deprived during the 2nd instar; and a negative effect on reproduction in the group that was deprived during the 4th instar, with reduced adult weight. Both food deprived periods tested are critical, and deprivation during the 2nd instar seems to have an effect as drastic as during the 4th instar because it directly affects larvae survival. Immatures can resist food deprivation for 24 h during the 2nd and 4th instars (low mortality), have a compensatory behaviour (high ingestion and biomass gain) during the 5th instar, and do not demonstrate cannibalistic behaviour during food deprivation.

Imaturos de mosquito (Diptera, Culicidae) de áreas urbana e rural no norte do Estado do Paraná, Brasil

The results of larval collections of mosquitoes from artificial containers and natural breeding at urban and rural areas carried out at Sertaneja, northern State Paraná, Brazil, from February to April, 1995, are presented. Among the 4534 immature forms collected, belonging to 21 species or species-groups, the species with higher density were Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762), Aedes albopictus (Skuse, 1894), Culex quinquefasciatus Say, 1823 and Limatus durhami Theobald, 1901.

Larvas de simulídeos (Diptera, Simuliidae) do centro oeste, sudeste e sul do Brasil, parasitadas por microsporídeos (Protozoa) e mermitídeos (Nematoda)

A survey of simulid larval parasites was carried out in different localities of the states of Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, from February 1996 to May 1998. Prevalences for the microsporidian Polydispyrenia simulii Lutz & Splendore, 1908 were found in Morungaba and Leme, São Paulo, ranging from around 0.7 to 66.7%, depending mainly on the host simulid species. Microsporidiosis was registered in localities of São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. Parasitism by Isomermis sp. (Nematoda, Mermithidae) was found in Simulium larvae from Serra do Japi, ranging from 0.8 to 45.8%, depending on the simulid species and the larval microhabitat in the stream, whether a cemented ramp in a lake outlet or the natural stream bed. Parasitism by mermithids was also found in ten localities. Mycoses caused by Coelomycidium sp. were for the first time recorded for larvae of Simulium (Chirostilbia) pertinax Kollar, 1832.

Impact of a power plant cooling system on copepod and meroplankton survival (Bahía Blanca estuary, Argentina)

The impact of a power plant cooling system in the Bahía Blanca estuary (Argentina) on the survival of target zooplanktonic organisms (copepods and crustacean larvae) and on overall mesozooplankton abundance was evaluated over time. Mortality rates were calculated for juveniles and adults of four key species in the estuary: Acartia tonsa Dana, 1849 and Eurytemora americana Williams, 1906 (native and invading copepods), and larvae of the crab Chasmagnathus granulata Dana, 1851 and the invading cirriped Balanus glandula Darwin, 1854. Mean total mortality values were up to four times higher at the water discharge site than at intake, though for all four species, significant differences were only registered in post-capture mortality. The findings show no evidence of greater larval sensitivity. As expected, the sharpest decrease in overall mesozooplankton abundance was found in areas close to heated water discharge.

The interference of methods in the collection of teredinids (Mollusca, Bivalvia) in mangrove habitats

In the estuary of the Mamanguape River (Paraíba, Brazil), a new collection technique was developed and applied with virgin poles of mangrove trees Avicennia schaueriana (Verbenaceae), Rhizophora mangle (Rhizophoraceae), and Laguncularia racemosa (Combretaceae), taking into account wood preference, water salinity and depth influence during teredinid larval settlement. Sets of poles were vertically fixed in the riverbed at three sites along a decreasing salinity gradient, where they stayed for four months. The poles were collected and divided into upper, median, and lower segments, in agreement with different immersion regimes. An increase of 239% was obtained in the number of individuals when compared to a previous study in the same area using a different methodology. The species Teredo bartschi (Clapp, 1923), Nausitora fusticula (Jeffreys, 1860) and Bankia fimbriatula Moll & Roch, 1931 were registered in both studies, and the species Psiloteredo healdi (Bartsch, 1931) is here registered for the first time as occurring in that estuary. The species Neoteredo reynei (Bartsch, 1920), previously registered on tree branches of the mangrove habitat, was not found in the present work. Bankia fimbriatula, the most abundant species, did not show preference for any substratum but occurred significantly on the lower segment of the poles. N. fusticula, second in abundance, preferred to settle on poles of A. schaueriana and on any of the three segments. Aiming to assess the habitat variations, a more accurate study on teredinids diversity in mangrove ecosystems should be performed through a concomitant analysis from tree branches of the mangrove habitat, as well as from poles of mangrove trees or panels made of pine wood or mangrove trees wood. These collection devices should be maintained along a decreasing salinity gradient exposed to different tide levels.

Spatial and temporal distribution of decapod larvae in the subtropical waters of the Arvoredo archipelago, SC, Brazil

The present paper aims to describe the temporal and spatial distribution of the composition and abundance of Decapoda larvae in the shallow waters around Arvoredo Marine Biological Reserve. Stomatopod occurrence is also discussed. Plankton samples were collected at five sites around the Arvoredo Island every two months for one year from May, 2002 to April, 2003. Thirty-nine morphotypes, 11 genus and 4 species (Artemesia longinaris Bate, 1888, Hexapanopeus schmitii Rathbun, 1930, Menippe nodifrons Stimpson, 1859 and Pleoticus muelleri Bate, 1888) were identified, among them only two morphotypes of Stomatopoda larvae, and the remainder Decapoda larvae. Brachyuran zoeae were the most abundant group and they were well represented by Portunidae and Xanthidae zoeae. Lucifer sp. and Caridea zoeae were the most abundant non-brachyuran taxa. Decapod larvae were observed to occur at all sampling sites, however the spatial distribution demonstrated a general tendency to greater abundance and diversity at the southern sites of the Island. Decapoda and Stomatopoda larvae occurred throughout the year, showing that reproduction is continuous, but that larval input in planktonic community was significantly higher during autumn and spring.