The Brazilian position on forests and climate change from 1997 to 2012: from veto to proposition

This article describes the Brazilian position on forests and climate change from 1997 to 2012. It argues that it has evolved from a veto, which excluded from the climate change regime emissions from the conversion of native forests, to a proposition, as Brazil offered its approach to the international community. It explains the change with domestic developments: governance over deforestation, the emergence of new and relevant actors, and presidential diplomacy.

Discrimination of native wood charcoal by infrared spectroscopy

Brazil is one of the largest producers and consumers of charcoal in the world. About 50% of its charcoal comes from native forests, with a large part coming from unsustainable operations. The anatomic identification of charcoal is subjective; an instrumental technique would facilitate the monitoring of forests. This study aimed to verify the feasibility of using medium and near infrared reflectance spectroscopy to discriminate native (ipê) from plantation charcoals (eucalyptus). Principal Components Analysis, followed by Discriminant Factorial Analysis formed two different groups indicated by Mahalanobis distances of 40.6 and 80.3 for near and mid infrared, respectively. Validation of the model showed 100% efficacy.

Diversity and population characteristics of terrestrial isopods (Crustacea, Oniscidea) across three forest environments in southern Brazil

Terrestrial isopods are important and dominant component of meso and macrodecomposer soil communities. The present study investigates the diversity and species composition of terrestrial isopods on three forests on the Serra Geral of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The area has two natural formations (Primary Woodland and Secondary Woodland) and one plantation of introduced Pinus. The pitfall traps operated from March 2001 to May 2002, with two summer periods and one winter. There were 14 sampling dates overall. Of the five species found: Alboscia silveirensis Araujo, 1999, Atlantoscia floridana (van Name, 1940), Benthana araucariana Araujo & Lopes, 2003 (Philoscidae), Balloniscus glaber Araujo & Zardo, 1995 (Balloniscidae) and Styloniscus otakensis (Chilton, 1901) (Styloniscidae); only A. floridana is abundant on all environments and B. glaber is nearly exclusive for the native forests. The obtained data made it possible to infer about population characteristics of this species. The Similarity Analysis showed a quantitative difference among the Secondary forest and Pinus plantation, but not a qualitative one. The operational sex ratio (OSR) analysis for A. floridana does not reveal significant differences in male and female proportions among environments. The reproductive period identified in the present study for A. floridana was from spring to autumn in the primary forest and Pinus plantation and during all year for the secondary forest. The OSR analysis for B. glaber reveals no significant differences in abundance between males and females for secondary forest, but the primary forest was a significant difference. The reproductive period for B. glaber extended from summer to autumn (for primary and secondary forest). This is the first record for Brazil of an established terrestrial isopod population in a Pinus sp. plantation area, evidenced by the presence of young, adults and ovigerous females, balanced sex ratio, expected fecundity and reproduction pattern, as compared to populations from native vegetation areas.

Biomassa e energia

Biomass was the dominating source of energy for human activities until the middle 19th century, when coal, oil, gas and other energy sources became increasingly important but it still represents ca. 10% of the worldwide energy supply. The major part of biomass for energy is still "traditional biomass" used as wood and coal extracted from native forests and thus non-sustainable, used with low efficiency for cooking and home heating, causing pollution problems. This use is largely done in rural areas and it is usually not supported by trading activities. There is now a strong trend to the modernization of biomass use, especially making alcohol from sugar cane thus replacing gasoline, or biodiesel to replace Diesel oil, beyond the production of electricity and vegetable coal using wood from planted forests. As recently as in 2004, sustainable "modern biomass" represented 2% of worldwide energy consumption. This article discusses the perspectives of the "first" and "second" technology generations for liquid fuel production, as well as biomass gaseification to make electricity or syngas that is in turn used in the Fischer-Tropsch process.

Foraging behavioral of Phylloscartes ventralis (Aves, Tyrannidae) in native and planted forests of southern Brazil

Few studies have related the effects of silviculture practices to the behavior of bird species in the Neotropics. The present study examined the foraging behavior of Phylloscartes ventralis (Temminck, 1824) in a native forest and in silviculture areas of Pinus elliotti and Araucaria angustifolia with different structures and ages. We tested two general hypotheses: (1) areas of commercial forest plantation change the foraging behavior of P. ventralis in relation to native forest, and (2) the foraging behavior of P. ventralis in silviculture areas with understories (complex structures) is different from its behavior in areas without understory. The results showed that P. ventralis changed its foraging behavior depending on the type of forest, and on the presence of an understory in silviculture areas. Main changes involved the height and angle of substrate where the prey was captured. Phylloscartes ventralis showed the same set of attack maneuvers, with more maneuvers type in young Pinus planted without understory. The frequency of use of attack maneuvers was more similar in areas of silviculture with understory and in the native forest. The results highlight the importance of an understory structure and the utilization of native plant species in silviculture practices, to the foraging behavior of native bird species.

Relationships between microbial activity and soil physical and chemical properties in native and reforested Araucaria angustifolia forests in the state of São Paulo, Brazil

Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) O. Kuntze is the main component of the Mixed Ombrophilous forest and, in the State of São Paulo, it is associated with a high diversity of soil organisms, essential for the maintenance of soil quality, making the conservation of this ecosystem a major and pressing challenge. The objective of this study was to identify the physical and chemical properties that are most closely correlated with dehydrogenase enzyme activity, basal respiration and microbial biomass under native (NF) and replanted (RF) Araucaria angustifolia forests in three regions of the state of São Paulo, in winter and summer. The main differentiating factors between the areas were also determined. Each forest was represented by three true replications; at each site, from around the araucaria trees, 15 soil samples (0-20 cm) were collected to evaluate the soil physical, chemical and microbiological properties. At the same points, forest litter was sampled to assess mass and chemical properties. The following microbiological properties were evaluated: microbial biomass carbon (MBC), basal respiration (CO2-C), metabolic quotient (Q: CO2), dehydrogenase enzyme activity (DHA) as well as the physical properties (moisture, bulk density, macroporosity and total porosity), soil chemical properties [pH, organic carbon (org-C), P, Ca, K, Mg, Al, H+Al], litter dry mass, and C, N and S contents. The data were subjected to analysis of variance (TWO-WAY: ANOVA). A Canonical Discriminant Analysis (CDA) and a Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) were also performed. In the soil under NF, the values of K, P, soil macroporosity, and litter dry mass were higher and Q: CO2 and DHA lower, regardless of the sampling period, and DHA was lower in winter. In the RF areas, the levels of moisture, porosity and Q: CO2 were higher in both sampling periods, and DHA was higher in winter. The MBC was only higher under NF in the summer, while the litter contents of C, N and S were greater in winter. In winter, CCA showed a high correlation of DHA with CO2-C, pH and H+Al, while in the summer org-C, moisture, Mg, pH and litter C were more associated with DHA and CO2-C. The CDA indicated H+Al, available P, total porosity, litter S content, and soil moisture as the most discriminating variables between NF and RF, but moisture was the most relevant, in both seasons and CO2-C only in winter. The combined analysis of CCA and CDA showed that the contribution of the microbiological variables to a differentiation of the areas was small at both samplings, which may indicate that the period after reforestation was long enough to allow an almost complete recovery of the microbial activity.

Biomass and nutrient cycling in pure and mixed stands of native tree species in southeastern Bahia, Brazil

The objective of this paper is to study selected components of the nutrient cycle of pure and mixed stands of native forest species of Atlantic Forest in southeastern Brazil. Tree diameter, height, above-ground biomass, and nutrient content were determined in 22-year-old stands. Litterfall, litter decomposition, and nutrient concentration were evaluated from August 1994 to July 1995. The following species were studied: Peltogyne angustiflora, Centrolobium robustum, Arapatiella psilophylla, Sclerolobium chrysophyllum, Cordia trichotoma, Macrolobium latifolium. The litter of a natural forest and a 40-year-old naturally regenerated second-growth forest was sampled as well. The mixed-species outmatched pure stands in height, stem volume and total biomass (29.4 % more). The greatest amount of forest litter was observed in the natural forest (9.3 Mg ha-1), followed by the mixed-species stand (7.6 Mg ha-1) and secondary forest (7.3 Mg ha-1), and least litterfall was measured in the pure C. robustum stand (5.5 Mg ha-1). Litterfall seasonality varied among species in pure stands (CV from 44.7 to 91.4 %), unlike litterfall in the mixed-tree stand, where the variation was lower (CV 31.2 %). In the natural and second-growth forest, litterfall varied by 57.8 and 34.0 %, respectively. The annual rate of nutrient return via litterfall varied widely among forest ecosystems. Differences were detected between forest ecosystems in both the litter accumulation and quantity of litterlayer nutrients. The highest mean nutrient accumulation in above-ground biomass was observed in mixed-species stands. The total nutrient accumulation (N + P + K+ Ca + Mg) ranged from 0.97 to 1.93 kg tree-1 in pure stands, and from 1.21 to 2.63 kg tree-1 in mixed-species stands. Soil fertility under mixed-species stands (0-10 cm) was intermediate between the primary forest and pure-stand systems. The litterfall rate of native forest species in a mixed-species system is more constant, resulting in a more continuous decomposition rate. Consequently, both nutrient availability and quantity of organic matter in the soil are higher and the production system ecologically more sustainable.

Floristic composition of two wetland forests in Araguaian Plain, State of Tocantins, Brazil, and comparison with other areas

Seasonally inundated native forest fragments ("ipucas") located in natural landform depression swales of the Araguaian Plain are currently under land use pressure. Their composition needs to be better understood to guarantee their protection. This comparative study of fragments under different land use conditions was carried out at Lago Verde Farm, Lagoa da Confusão,Tocantins, Brazil. The location coordinates are UTM 643586 and 644060 East and 8792795 and 8799167 North. This study aimed to first analyze and compare the floristic composition of two seasonally inundated forest fragments of approximately one hectare each. The first is located in an intact (without human intervention) Gramineous-Woody Savanna region and the second in a rice cultivation region. The floristic composition of both fragments was then compared to that of other wetland forests located in the Northern, Central Western and Southeastern regions of Brazil.All the floristic compositions are affected by seasonal flooding and soil water saturation. The floristic inventory used a census method that sampled all trees and shrubs with perimeter at 1.30 m from soil (PAP) = 15cm; 665 individuals, 33 families and 49 species were recorded for the intact region and 807 individuals, 35 families and 70 species for the altered region fragment. The values of H' = 0.806 (Shannon-Weaver) and J = 3.44 nats /individual (equability) for the fragment in the region affected by rice cultivation are considered high compared to the intact region fragment values (H' = 0.761 and J = 2.97). Families contributing to floristic richness in the altered region fragment were Fabaceae (9 species), Vochysiaceae (6) and Annonaceae (4). In the intact region fragment, Fabaceae also presented the largest number of species (8) followed by Arecaceae, Chrysobalanaceae and Vochysiaceae (3 each). When comparing the forests from various regions in Brazil, floristic similarity was found to be small. Greater similarity was found when indices for the two Lagoa da Confusão fragments were compared to riparian forests located in the Federal District of Brasilia.

PHYTOSOCIOLOGY AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION OF WOODY REGENERATION FROM A REFORESTATION WITH NATIVE SPECIES IN SOUTHEASTERN BRAZIL

ABSTRACT In Brazil, specifically in São Paulo State, there are guidelines based on the high diversity of tropical forests that instructs the restoration projects in the state (current SMA 32/2014). The main goal of this study was verify the importance and effectiveness of the high diversity of arboreal species originated from a reforestation, and its influence in a woody regenerating composition. We developed a phytosociologic study in a woody regenerating stratum of a nine year old reforestation at a Private Reserve of Natural Heritage (RPPN), in Mogi-Guaçu, São Paulo State. All specimens with height > 30 cm and Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) < 5 cm were evaluated. The woody regenerating diversity was smaller than the overstory diversity and the species composition was similar to the overstory. The Simpson index (1-D) was 0.85, Shannon index (H') was 2.46 and the Pielou index (J') was 0.60. The zoochoric dispersion syndrome was major among the species. Our results suggest that the use of high diversity of native seedlings in a reforestation leads to high diversity of species in woody regeneration stratum, after one decade of planting.

Screening of antibacterial extracts from plants native to the Brazilian Amazon Rain Forest and Atlantic Forest

More than 20% of the world's biodiversity is located in Brazilian forests and only a few plant extracts have been evaluated for potential antibacterial activity. In the present study, 705 organic and aqueous extracts of plants obtained from different Amazon Rain Forest and Atlantic Forest plants were screened for antibacterial activity at 100 µg/ml, using a microdilution broth assay against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli. One extract, VO581, was active against S. aureus (minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) = 140 µg/ml and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) = 160 µg/ml, organic extract obtained from stems) and two extracts were active against E. faecalis, SM053 (MIC = 80 µg/ml and MBC = 90 µg/ml, organic extract obtained from aerial parts), and MY841 (MIC = 30 µg/ml and MBC = 50 µg/ml, organic extract obtained from stems). The most active fractions are being fractionated to identify their active substances. Higher concentrations of other extracts are currently being evaluated against the same microorganisms.

Using different satellite imagery and classification techniques to assess the contribution of trees outside forests in the municipality of Maringá, Brazil

Forest cover of the Maringá municipality, located in northern Parana State, was mapped in this study. Mapping was carried out by using high-resolution HRC sensor imagery and medium resolution CCD sensor imagery from the CBERS satellite. Images were georeferenced and forest vegetation patches (TOFs - trees outside forests) were classified using two methods of digital classification: reflectance-based or the digital number of each pixel, and object-oriented. The areas of each polygon were calculated, which allowed each polygon to be segregated into size classes. Thematic maps were built from the resulting polygon size classes and summary statistics generated from each size class for each area. It was found that most forest fragments in Maringá were smaller than 500 m². There was also a difference of 58.44% in the amount of vegetation between the high-resolution imagery and medium resolution imagery due to the distinct spatial resolution of the sensors. It was concluded that high-resolution geotechnology is essential to provide reliable information on urban greens and forest cover under highly human-perturbed landscapes.

Enzootic transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi and T. rangeli in the Federal District of Brazil

The Federal District of Brazil (DF) lies within the Cerrado biome, where open shrubland (savannas) is interspersed with riverside gallery forests and permanent swamps (veredas). Trypanosoma cruzi-infected native triatomines occur in the area, but the enzootic transmission of trypanosomatids remains poorly characterized. A parasitological survey involving sylvatic triatomines (166 Rhodnius neglectus collected from Mauritia flexuosa palms) and small mammals (98 marsupials and 70 rodents, totaling 18 species) was conducted in 18 sites (mainly gallery forests and veredas) of the DF. Parasites were isolated, morphologically identified, and characterized by PCR of nuclear (mini-exon gene) and kinetoplast DNA (kDNA). Six R. neglectus, seven Didelphis albiventris and one Akodon cursor were infected by trypanosomes; wild reservoir infection is documented for the first time in the DF. kDNA PCR detected T. cruzi in five R. neglectus and mini-exon gene PCR revealed T. cruzi I in isolates from D. albiventris. Parasites infecting one bug yielded T. rangeli KP1+ kDNA amplicons. In spite of the occurrence of T. cruzi-infected D. albiventris (an important wild and peridomestic reservoir) and R. neglectus (a secondary vector displaying synanthropic behavior), a low-risk of human Chagas disease transmission could be expected in the DF, considering the low prevalence infection recorded in this work. The detection of T. rangeli KP1+ associated with R. neglectus in the DF widens the known range of this parasite in Brazil and reinforces the hypothesis of adaptation of T. rangeli populations (KP1+ and KP1-) to distinct evolutionary Rhodnius lineages.

INVENTORY OF MOSQUITOES (DIPTERA: CULICIDAE) IN CONSERVATION UNITS IN BRAZILIAN TROPICAL DRY FORESTS

In Brazil, most studies of the Culicidae family are concentrated in rainforest regions. As such, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the diversity of Culicidae in regions with different climatic and vegetational characteristics. The aim of this study was to compile an inventory of Culicidae in protected areas of the semi-arid region of the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, in order to better understand the diversity of the family within this region. The study was conducted across four protected areas in the northern region of the state, in tropical dry forest (TDF) fragments. Sampling methods included Shannon trap and CDC light trap, as well as active collection. A total of 11,219 mosquito specimens were collected between August 2008 and July 2012, belonging to 11 genera and 45 species; 15 new records for the state of Minas Gerais were registered, as well as 26 new records for semi-arid regions within the state. The high number of new Culicidae records in this region demonstrates the importance of inventory studies for increasing the knowledge of culicid biodiversity in Minas Gerais, and in particular within semi-arid regions of the state.

Accident caused by Centruroides testaceus (DeGeer, 1778) (Scorpiones, Buthidae), native to the Caribbean, in Brazilian airport

Describes the case of a 6-year-old girl who was stung by a Centruroides testaceus, a scorpion native to the Lesser Antilles, in the Guarulhos International Airport, São Paulo, Brazil, as she disembarked from a flight coming from the Caribbean. The patient presented only local symptoms (a small area of erythema and pain at the sting site), which were resolved after a few hours with analgesics, without the need for antivenom. Physicians who treat patients stung by scorpions should be alert to the possibility of such accidents being caused by non native species, especially those cases that occur near airports or ports.