Use of Poisson spatiotemporal regression models for the Brazilian Amazon Forest: malaria count data

INTRODUCTION: Malaria is a serious problem in the Brazilian Amazon region, and the detection of possible risk factors could be of great interest for public health authorities. The objective of this article was to investigate the association between environmental variables and the yearly registers of malaria in the Amazon region using Bayesian spatiotemporal methods. METHODS: We used Poisson spatiotemporal regression models to analyze the Brazilian Amazon forest malaria count for the period from 1999 to 2008. In this study, we included some covariates that could be important in the yearly prediction of malaria, such as deforestation rate. We obtained the inferences using a Bayesian approach and Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods to simulate samples for the joint posterior distribution of interest. The discrimination of different models was also discussed. RESULTS: The model proposed here suggests that deforestation rate, the number of inhabitants per km², and the human development index (HDI) are important in the prediction of malaria cases. CONCLUSIONS: It is possible to conclude that human development, population growth, deforestation, and their associated ecological alterations are conducive to increasing malaria risk. We conclude that the use of Poisson regression models that capture the spatial and temporal effects under the Bayesian paradigm is a good strategy for modeling malaria counts.

Importance of anatomical leaf features for characterization of three species of Mapania (Mapanioideae, Cyperaceae) from the Amazon Forest, Brazil

Mapania belongs to Mapanioideae, a quite controversial subfamily in Cyperaceae due to the existence of unusual characters in both reproductive and vegetative organs. The genus is represented by seven species in Northern Brazil but taxonomic valuable information related to the leaf organs is still unknown. The present study aimed the anatomical description of the leaf organs (either basal leaves or cataphylls and involucral bracts) of three representative Brazilian species of Mapania. Samples of cataphylls, basal leaves and involucral bracts were sectioned and stained for observations under light microscopy. The involucral bracts provide the most elucidative characters (ten) to distinguish the three species The basal leaves provides six distinguishing characters and are useful to M. macrophylla and M. pycnostachya, as they are absent in M. sylvatica. Mesophyll arrangement in the involucral bracts supports the circumscription of M. macrophylla and M. pycnostachya in M. sect. Pycnocephala and of M. sylvatica in M. sect. Mapania. Some features as thin-walled epidermal cells, stomata level and aerenchyma were considered to be adaptive to the humid environment in which the species occur. The translucent cells are here considered as aerenchyma precursors and a supportive function is assumed for the bulliform cells on the basal leaves and involucral bracts. No silica bodies were found which confirm it as a diagnostic character of Mapania among Hypolytreae genera.

Multi-temporal analysis of radiometric changes in satellite images of forest edges to infer selective-logging areas in the Amazon forest

Radiometric changes observed in multi-temporal optical satellite images have an important role in efforts to characterize selective-logging areas. The aim of this study was to analyze the multi-temporal behavior of spectral-mixture responses in satellite images in simulated selective-logging areas in the Amazon forest, considering red/near-infrared spectral relationships. Forest edges were used to infer the selective-logging infrastructure using differently oriented edges in the transition between forest and deforested areas in satellite images. TM/Landsat-5 images acquired at three dates with different solar-illumination geometries were used in this analysis. The method assumed that the radiometric responses between forest with selective-logging effects and forest edges in contact with recent clear-cuts are related. The spatial frequency attributes of red/near infrared bands for edge areas were analyzed. Analysis of dispersion diagrams showed two groups of pixels that represent selective-logging areas. The attributes for size and radiometric distance representing these two groups were related to solar-elevation angle. The results suggest that detection of timber exploitation areas is limited because of the complexity of the selective-logging radiometric response. Thus, the accuracy of detecting selective logging can be influenced by the solar-elevation angle at the time of image acquisition. We conclude that images with lower solar-elevation angles are less reliable for delineation of selecting logging.

Mating system parameters in a high density population of andirobas in the Amazon forest

The objective of this work was to estimate the mating system parameters of a andiroba (Carapa guianensis) population using microsatellite markers and the mixed and correlated mating models. Twelve open‑pollinated progeny arrays of 15 individuals were sampled in an area with C. guianensis estimated density of 25.7 trees per hectare. Overall, the species has a mixed reproductive system, with a predominance of outcrossing. The multilocus outcrossing rate (t m = 0.862) was significantly lower than the unity, indicating that self‑pollination occurred. The rate of biparental inbreeding was substantial (t m ‑ t s = 0.134) and significantly different from zero. The correlation of selfing within progenies was high (r s = 0.635), indicating variation in the individual outcrossing rate. Consistent with this result, the estimate of the individual outcrossing rate ranged from 0.598 to 0.978. The multilocus correlation of paternity was low (r p(m) = 0.081), but significantly different from zero, suggesting that the progenies contain full‑sibs. The coancestry within progenies (Θ = 0.185) was higher and the variance effective size (Ne(v) = 2.7) was lower than expected for true half‑sib progenies (Θ = 0.125; Ne(v) = 4). These results suggest that, in order to maintain a minimum effective size of 150 individuals for breeding, genetic conservation, and environmental reforestation programs, seeds from at least 56 trees must be collected.

Levels of leaf Herbivory in Amazonian trees from different stages In forest regeneration

Leaves from 120 canopy trees and 60 understory tree saplings growing in primary and secondary forests near Manaus, Brazil, were collected for determination of standing levels of herbivory (percent leaf area lost). Overall, levels of herbivory on leaves of central Amazonian trees were low. About one quarter of the leaves examined (n = 855) had no damage at all. In most other Neotropical sites studied the mean percentage of herbivory was found to vary between 5.7 and 13.1%, whereas in Manaus it was only 3.1%. The data presented here support the contention that levels of herbivore damage are positively related to soil fertility. No significant difference was found in herbivory levels between canopy trees and understory saplings. Also, there was no difference in damage between leaves from pioneer and late successional trees. Field assays of preference, however, revealed that leaves from pioneer trees are more palatable to leaf-cutting ants (Atta laevigata). This effect was dependent upon leaf age, being observed in mature leaves, but not in young leaves. The greater rate of leaf production in secondary forests may be a factor accounting for the greater abundance of leaf-cutting ants in secondary compared to primary forests.

Abundance of two Dendrocincla woodcreepers (aves: Dendrocolaptidae) in relation to forest structure in Central Amazonia

Few studies have been conducted to verify how the structure of the forest affects the occurence and abundance of neotropical birds. Our research was undertaken between January 2002 and July 2004 at the Reserva Ducke, near Manaus (02º55',03º01'S; 59º53',59º59'W) in central Amazonia, to verify how the forest structure affects the occurrence and abundance of two bird species: the Plain-brown Woodcreeper Dendrocincla fuliginosa and the White-chinned Woodcreeper Dendrocincla merula. Bird species occurrence was recorded using lines of 20 mist-nets (one sample unit), along 51 1-km transects distributed along 9 pararel 8 km trails covering an area of 6400 ha. Along these transects, we placed 50 x 50m plots where we recorded forest structure components (tree abundance, canopy openness, leaf litter, standing dead trees, logs, proximity to streams, and altitude). We then related these variables to bird occurence and abundance using multiple logistic and multiple linear regression models, respectively. We found that D. fuliginosa frequently used plateau areas; being more abundant in areas with more trees. On the other hand, D. merula occurred more frequently and was more abundant in areas with low tree abundance. Our results suggest that although both species overlap in the reserve (both were recorded in at least 68% of the sampled sites), they differ in the way they use the forest microhabitats. Therefore, local variation in the forest structure may contribute to the coexistence of congeneric species and may help to maintain local alpha diversity.

Frugivory by birds on Schefflera morototoni (Araliaceae) in a Cerrado-Amazon orest transition area, eastern Mato Grosso, Brazil

Schefflera morototoni fruits are important food source for neotropical frugivorous birds. The objectives of the present study were to record bird species that consumed fruits of S. morototoni in a forest in the transition Cerrado-Amazon Forest, Mato Grosso, Brazil and evaluate the potential of these bird species as seed dispersers of this plant species. During 31 observation hours, from November 1 to 5, 2011, 23 bird species were recorded consuming S. morototoni fruits. Out of these, 20 bird species were considered potential seed dispersers, as they swallow the fruits whole. The species consuming the greatest number of fruits were Aburria cujubi (24% of total consumed fruits), Pteroglossus castanotis (18%), Tangara palmarum (12%), Patagioenas speciosa (11%), Ramphastos toco (8%), and Dacnis lineata (5%). The species T. palmarum showed the highest visit frequency (VF = 1.51), followed by P. castanotis (VF = 0.80), and D. lineata (VF = 0.77). All bird species employed picking foraging method for removal of fruits and in 11 species (48%) this method was the only one used. Agonistic interactions represented 13% of the total number of visits. Dacnis lineata received the highest number of attacks and P. castanotis and Pitangus sulphuratus were the more aggressive species. The high bird richness and the great number of consumed fruits indicated that the fruits of S. morototoni may be an important food resource for birds in the Cerrado-Amazon Forest transition

Palm community transitions along a topographic gradient from floodplain to terra firme in the eastern Amazon

Palms show clear niche segregation patterns along topographic gradients in tropical forests, with some species associated to terra firme and others to seasonally flooded areas. The aim of this study was to quantitatively describe the fine-scale spatial variation within a palm community, tracking the changes in species' abundance along environmental gradients associated with a perennial stream the eastern Amazon. The study of palm communities was based on 60 forest plots in which all adult palms were counted. We found a total of 566 palms in a community containing 11 species. Furthermore, we found a significant separation in the palm community between seasonally-flooded and terra firme forests. We found a gradient with various densities of the three most abundant palm species within the first 100 m away from the flooded area. Other species were located exclusively in the terra firme forest. The abundance of the six most common species were distributed in relation to humidity gradients from floodplains to terra firme, with palm distribution from the most flood-tolerant to the least flood-tolerant palm species as follows: Euterpe oleracea, Attalea phalerata and Socratea exorrhiza (species with floodplain affinity), Astrocaryum gynacanthum, Astrocaryum aculeatum, Attalea maripa (species with terra firme affinity)

Spatial and temporal evolution of family-farming land use in the Tapajós region of the Brazilian Amazon

Pressures on the Brazilian Amazon forest have been accentuated by agricultural activities practiced by families encouraged to settle in this region in the 1970s by the colonization program of the government. The aims of this study were to analyze the temporal and spatial evolution of land cover and land use (LCLU) in the lower Tapajós region, in the state of Pará. We contrast 11 watersheds that are generally representative of the colonization dynamics in the region. For this purpose, Landsat satellite images from three different years, 1986, 2001, and 2009, were analyzed with Geographic Information Systems. Individual images were subject to an unsupervised classification using the Maximum Likelihood Classification algorithm available on GRASS. The classes retained for the representation of LCLU in this study were: (1) slightly altered old-growth forest, (2) succession forest, (3) crop land and pasture, and (4) bare soil. The analysis and observation of general trends in eleven watersheds shows that LCLU is changing very rapidly. The average deforestation of old-growth forest in all the watersheds was estimated at more than 30% for the period of 1986 to 2009. The local-scale analysis of watersheds reveals the complexity of LCLU, notably in relation to large changes in the temporal and spatial evolution of watersheds. Proximity to the sprawling city of Itaituba is related to the highest rate of deforestation in two watersheds. The opening of roads such as the Transamazonian highway is associated to the second highest rate of deforestation in three watersheds.

Effects of timber harvest on phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in a production forest: abundance of species on tree trunks and prevalence of trypanosomatids

The Amazon forest is being exploited for timber production. The harvest removes trees, used by sand flies as resting sites, and decreases the canopy, used as refuges by some hosts. The present study evaluated the impact of the timber harvest, the abundance of sand flies, and their trypanosomatid infection rates before and after selective logging. The study was accomplished in terra-firme production forest in an area of timber harvest, state of Amazonas, Brazil. Sand fly catches were carried out in three areas: one before and after the timber harvest, and two control areas, a nature preservation area and a previously exploited area. The flies were caught by aspiration on tree trunks. Samples of sand flies were dissected for parasitological examination. In the site that suffered a harvest, a larger number of individuals was caught before the selective extraction of timber, showing significant difference in relation to the number of individuals and their flagellate infection rates after the logging. The other two areas did not show differences among their sand fly populations. This fact is suggestive of a fauna sensitive to the environmental alterations associated with selective logging.

Population structure of the malaria vector Anopheles darlingi in Rondônia, Brazilian Amazon, based on mitochondrial DNA

Anopheles darlingi is the most important Brazilian malaria vector, with a widespread distribution in the Amazon forest. Effective strategies for vector control could be better developed through knowledge of its genetic structure and gene flow among populations, to assess the vector diversity and competence in transmitting Plasmodium. The aim of this study was to assess the genetic diversity of An. darlingi collected at four locations in Porto Velho, by sequencing a fragment of the ND4 mitochondrial gene. From 218 individual mosquitoes, we obtained 20 different haplotypes with a diversity index of 0.756, equivalent to that found in other neotropical anophelines. The analysis did not demonstrate significant population structure. However, haplotype diversity within some populations seems to be over-represented, suggesting the presence of sub-populations, but the presence of highly represented haplotypes complicates this analysis. There was no clear correlation among genetic and geographical distance and there were differences in relation to seasonality, which is important for malarial epidemiology.

An overview of malaria transmission from the perspective of Amazon Anopheles vectors

In the Americas, areas with a high risk of malaria transmission are mainly located in the Amazon Forest, which extends across nine countries. One keystone step to understanding the Plasmodium life cycle in Anopheles species from the Amazon Region is to obtain experimentally infected mosquito vectors. Several attempts to colonise Ano- pheles species have been conducted, but with only short-lived success or no success at all. In this review, we review the literature on malaria transmission from the perspective of its Amazon vectors. Currently, it is possible to develop experimental Plasmodium vivax infection of the colonised and field-captured vectors in laboratories located close to Amazonian endemic areas. We are also reviewing studies related to the immune response to P. vivax infection of Anopheles aquasalis, a coastal mosquito species. Finally, we discuss the importance of the modulation of Plasmodium infection by the vector microbiota and also consider the anopheline genomes. The establishment of experimental mosquito infections with Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium yoelii and Plasmodium berghei parasites that could provide interesting models for studying malaria in the Amazonian scenario is important. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of the parasites in New World vectors is crucial in order to better determine the interaction process and vectorial competence.

Local-scale spatial variation in diversity of social wasps in an Amazonian rain forest in Caxiuanã, Pará, Brazil (Hymenoptera, Vespidae, Polistinae)

Polistine wasps are important in Neotropical ecosystems due to their ubiquity and diversity. Inventories have not adequately considered spatial attributes of collected specimens. Spatial data on biodiversity are important for study and mitigation of anthropogenic impacts over natural ecosystems and for protecting species. We described and analyzed local-scale spatial patterns of collecting records of wasp species, as well as spatial variation of diversity descriptors in a 2500-hectare area of an Amazon forest in Brazil. Rare species comprised the largest fraction of the fauna. Close range spatial effects were detected for most of the more common species, with clustering of presence-data at short distances. Larger spatial lag effects could also be identified in some species, constituting probably cases of exogenous autocorrelation and candidates for explanations based on environmental factors. In a few cases, significant or near significant correlations were found between five species (of Agelaia, Angiopolybia, and Mischocyttarus) and three studied environmental variables: distance to nearest stream, terrain altitude, and the type of forest canopy. However, association between these factors and biodiversity variables were generally low. When used as predictors of polistine richness in a linear multiple regression, only the coefficient for the forest canopy variable resulted significant. Some level of prediction of wasp diversity variables can be attained based on environmental variables, especially vegetation structure. Large-scale landscape and regional studies should be scheduled to address this issue.

A survey of necrophagous blowflies (Diptera: Oestroidea) in the Amazonas-Negro interfluvial region (Brazilian Amazon)

ABSTRACT The fauna of blowflies (Calliphoridae and Mesembrinellidae) in three localities of primary Amazon forest coverage in the Amazonas-Negro interfluvial region was assessed. A total of 5066 blowflies were collected, with Chloroprocta idiodea being the most abundant species (66.3%). A difference in species richness between the localities ZF2 and Novo Airão was observed. Comparison among sampled sites revealed no considerable variation in fauna composition, except for the species Eumesembrinella benoisti (Séguy 1925) and Hemilucilia sp., whose occurrence was observed only in a single locality. Apparently, Amazon rivers are not efficient geographical barriers to influence the current composition of necrophagous blowfly assemblages. Also, most of the blowfly species did not show a noticeable specificity for any specific forest among the interfluvial areas of the ombrophilous forest. Finally, an updated checklist of necrophagous blowfly species of the Amazonas state in Brazil is presented.

Distribution of phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae) of medical importance in Mato Grosso State, Brazil

Intense environmental impacts, causing alterations of the natural habitats of fauna, including those of sandfly disease vectors are observed in Mato Grosso State, Central Brazil. Entomologic survey of phlebotomines was based on light trap and was carried out by entomological nucleus of the FUNASA and SES in the period between 1996 and 2001. Eighty eight species were identified, including the following sandflies with medical importance to leishmaniasis: Lutzomyia amazonensis, L. anduzei, L. antunesi, L. ayrozai, L. carrerai carrerai, L. complexa, L. cruzi, L. flaviscutellata, L. intermedia, L. longipalpis, L. migonei, L. paraensis, L. ubiquitalis, L. whitmani and L. yuilli yuilli. Most sandflies of medical importance occurred in the Amazon forest and savannah. L. longipalpis and L. cruzi had high densities in the savannah region. L. flaviscutellata is predominating in both the Amazon forest and the savannah region. L. whitmani and L. antunesi were sampled in the Amazon forest, savannah and marsh land.