Improving the scientific reliability of biological detection of explosives by Canis familiaris: Active odour signatures and their implications

The use of canines as a method of detection of explosives is well established worldwide and those applying this technology range from police forces and law enforcement to humanitarian agencies in the developing world. Despite the recent surge in publication of novel instrumental sensors for explosives detection, canines are still regarded by many to be the most effective real-time field method of explosives detection. However, unlike instrumental methods, currently it is difficult to determine detection levels, perform calibration of the canines' ability or produce scientifically valid quality control checks. Accordingly, amongst increasingly strict requirements regarding forensic evidence admission such as Frye and Daubert, there is a need for better scientific understanding of the process of canine detection. ^ When translated to the field of canine detection, just like any instrumental technique, peer reviewed publication of the reliability, success and error rates, is required for admissibility. Commonly training is focussed towards high explosives such as TNT and Composition 4, and the low explosives such as Black and Smokeless Powders are added often only for completeness. ^ Headspace analyses of explosive samples, performed by Solid Phase Microextraction (SPME) paired with Gas Chromatography - Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), and Gas Chromatography - Electron Capture Detection (GC-ECD) was conducted, highlighting common odour chemicals. The odour chemicals detected were then presented to previously trained and certified explosives detection canines, and the activity/inactivity of the odour determined through field trials and experiments. ^ It was demonstrated that TNT and cast explosives share a common odour signature, and the same may be said for plasticized explosives such as Composition C-4 and Deta Sheet. Conversely, smokeless powders were demonstrated not to share common odours. An evaluation of the effectiveness of commercially available pseudo aids reported limited success. The implications of the explosive odour studies upon canine training then led to the development of novel inert training aids based upon the active odours determined. ^

Reliability of the Clinical Application of a Mechanical Inclinometer in Measuring Glenohumeral Motion

Objective: Establish intra- and inter-examiner reliability of glenohumeral range of motion (ROM) measures taken by a single-clinician using a mechanical inclinometer. Design: A single-session, repeated-measure, randomized, counterbalanced design. Setting: Athletic Training laboratory. Participants: Ten college-aged volunteers (9 right-hand dominant; 4 males, 6 females; age=23.2±2.4y, mass=73±16kg, height=170±8cm) without shoulder or neck injuries within one year. Interventions: Two Certified Athletic Trainers separately assessed passive glenohumeral (GH) internal (IR) and external (ER) rotation bilaterally. Each clinician secured the inclinometer to each subject’s distal forearm using elastic straps. Clinicians followed standard procedures for assessing ROM, with the participants supine on a standard treatment table with 90° of elbow flexion. A second investigator recorded the angle. Clinicians measured all shoulders once to assess inter-clinician reliability and eight shoulders twice to assess intra-clinician reliability. We used SPSS 14.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) to calculate standard error of measure (SEM) and Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC) to evaluate intra- and inter-clinician reliability. Main Outcome Measures: Dependent variables were degrees of IR, ER, glenohumeral internal rotation deficit (GIRD) and total arc of rotation. We calculated GIRD as the bilateral difference in IR (nondominant–dominant) and total arc for each shoulder (IR+ER). Results: Intra-clinician reliability for each examiner was excellent (ICC[1,1] range=0.90-0.96; SEM=2.2°-2.5°) for all measures. Examiners displayed excellent inter-clinician reliability (ICC[2,1] range=0.79-0.97; SEM=1.7°-3.0°) for all measures except nondominant IR which had good reliability(0.72). Conclusions: Results suggest that clinicians can achieve reliable measures of GH rotation and GIRD using a single-clinician technique and an inexpensive, readily available mechanical inclinometer.