Development of hardware in the loop real-time control techniques for hybrid power systems involving distributed demands and sustainable energy sources

The future power grid will effectively utilize renewable energy resources and distributed generation to respond to energy demand while incorporating information technology and communication infrastructure for their optimum operation. This dissertation contributes to the development of real-time techniques, for wide-area monitoring and secure real-time control and operation of hybrid power systems. ^ To handle the increased level of real-time data exchange, this dissertation develops a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system that is equipped with a state estimation scheme from the real-time data. This system is verified on a specially developed laboratory-based test bed facility, as a hardware and software platform, to emulate the actual scenarios of a real hybrid power system with the highest level of similarities and capabilities to practical utility systems. It includes phasor measurements at hundreds of measurement points on the system. These measurements were obtained from especially developed laboratory based Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) that is utilized in addition to existing commercially based PMU’s. The developed PMU was used in conjunction with the interconnected system along with the commercial PMU’s. The tested studies included a new technique for detecting the partially islanded micro grids in addition to several real-time techniques for synchronization and parameter identifications of hybrid systems. ^ Moreover, due to numerous integration of renewable energy resources through DC microgrids, this dissertation performs several practical cases for improvement of interoperability of such systems. Moreover, increased number of small and dispersed generating stations and their need to connect fast and properly into the AC grids, urged this work to explore the challenges that arise in synchronization of generators to the grid and through introduction of a Dynamic Brake system to improve the process of connecting distributed generators to the power grid.^ Real time operation and control requires data communication security. A research effort in this dissertation was developed based on Trusted Sensing Base (TSB) process for data communication security. The innovative TSB approach improves the security aspect of the power grid as a cyber-physical system. It is based on available GPS synchronization technology and provides protection against confidentiality attacks in critical power system infrastructures. ^

Carbon nanotube based systems for high energy efficient applications

In the current age of fast-depleting conventional energy sources, top priority is given to exploring non-conventional energy sources, designing highly efficient energy storage systems and converting existing machines/instruments/devices into energy-efficient ones. ‘Energy efficiency’ is one of the important challenges for today’s scientific and research community, worldwide. In line with this demand, the current research was focused on developing two highly energy-efficient devices – field emitters and Li-ion batteries, using beneficial properties of carbon nanotubes (CNT). Interface-engineered, directly grown CNTs were used as cathode in field emitters, while similar structure was applied as anode in Li-ion batteries. Interface engineering was found to offer minimum resistance to electron flow and strong bonding with the substrate. Both field emitters and Li-ion battery anodes were benefitted from these advantages, demonstrating high energy efficiency. Field emitter, developed during this research, could be characterized by low turn-on field, high emission current, very high field enhancement factor and extremely good stability during long-run. Further, application of 3-dimensional design to these field emitters resulted in achieving one of the highest emission current densities reported so far. The 3-D field emitter registered 27 times increase in current density, as compared to their 2-D counterparts. These achievements were further followed by adding new functionalities, transparency and flexibility, to field emitters, keeping in view of current demand for flexible displays. A CNT-graphene hybrid structure showed appreciable emission, along with very good transparency and flexibility. Li-ion battery anodes, prepared using the interface-engineered CNTs, have offered 140% increment in capacity, as compared to conventional graphite anodes. Further, it has shown very good rate capability and an exceptional ‘zero capacity degradation’ during long cycle operation. Enhanced safety and charge transfer mechanism of this novel anode structure could be explained from structural characterization. In an attempt to progress further, CNTs were coated with ultrathin alumina by atomic layer deposition technique. These alumina-coated CNT anodes offered much higher capacity and an exceptional rate capability, with very low capacity degradation in higher current densities. These highly energy efficient CNT based anodes are expected to enhance capacities of future Li-ion batteries.

Efficiency and power density improvement of grid-connected hybrid renewable energy systems utilizing high frequency-based power converters

High efficiency of power converters placed between renewable energy sources and the utility grid is required to maximize the utilization of these sources. Power quality is another aspect that requires large passive elements (inductors, capacitors) to be placed between these sources and the grid. The main objective is to develop higher-level high frequency-based power converter system (HFPCS) that optimizes the use of hybrid renewable power injected into the power grid. The HFPCS provides high efficiency, reduced size of passive components, higher levels of power density realization, lower harmonic distortion, higher reliability, and lower cost. The dynamic modeling for each part in this system is developed, simulated and tested. The steady-state performance of the grid-connected hybrid power system with battery storage is analyzed. Various types of simulations were performed and a number of algorithms were developed and tested to verify the effectiveness of the power conversion topologies. A modified hysteresis-control strategy for the rectifier and the battery charging/discharging system was developed and implemented. A voltage oriented control (VOC) scheme was developed to control the energy injected into the grid. The developed HFPCS was compared experimentally with other currently available power converters. The developed HFPCS was employed inside a microgrid system infrastructure, connecting it to the power grid to verify its power transfer capabilities and grid connectivity. Grid connectivity tests verified these power transfer capabilities of the developed converter in addition to its ability of serving the load in a shared manner. In order to investigate the performance of the developed system, an experimental setup for the HF-based hybrid generation system was constructed. We designed a board containing a digital signal processor chip on which the developed control system was embedded. The board was fabricated and experimentally tested. The system's high precision requirements were verified. Each component of the system was built and tested separately, and then the whole system was connected and tested. The simulation and experimental results confirm the effectiveness of the developed converter system for grid-connected hybrid renewable energy systems as well as for hybrid electric vehicles and other industrial applications.

Switching patterns and steady-state analysis of grid-connected and stand-alone single-stage boost-inverters for PV applications

Renewable or sustainable energy (SE) sources have attracted the attention of many countries because the power generated is environmentally friendly, and the sources are not subject to the instability of price and availability. This dissertation presents new trends in the DC-AC converters (inverters) used in renewable energy sources, particularly for photovoltaic (PV) energy systems. A review of the existing technologies is performed for both single-phase and three-phase systems, and the pros and cons of the best candidates are investigated. In many modern energy conversion systems, a DC voltage, which is provided from a SE source or energy storage device, must be boosted and converted to an AC voltage with a fixed amplitude and frequency. A novel switching pattern based on the concept of the conventional space-vector pulse-width-modulated (SVPWM) technique is developed for single-stage, boost-inverters using the topology of current source inverters (CSI). The six main switching states, and two zeros, with three switches conducting at any given instant in conventional SVPWM techniques are modified herein into three charging states and six discharging states with only two switches conducting at any given instant. The charging states are necessary in order to boost the DC input voltage. It is demonstrated that the CSI topology in conjunction with the developed switching pattern is capable of providing the required residential AC voltage from a low DC voltage of one PV panel at its rated power for both linear and nonlinear loads. In a micro-grid, the active and reactive power control and consequently voltage regulation is one of the main requirements. Therefore, the capability of the single-stage boost-inverter in controlling the active power and providing the reactive power is investigated. It is demonstrated that the injected active and reactive power can be independently controlled through two modulation indices introduced in the proposed switching algorithm. The system is capable of injecting a desirable level of reactive power, while the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) dictates the desirable active power. The developed switching pattern is experimentally verified through a laboratory scaled three-phase 200W boost-inverter for both grid-connected and stand-alone cases and the results are presented.

Hybrid power system intelligent operation and protection involving distributed architectures and pulsed loads

Efficient and reliable techniques for power delivery and utilization are needed to account for the increased penetration of renewable energy sources in electric power systems. Such methods are also required for current and future demands of plug-in electric vehicles and high-power electronic loads. Distributed control and optimal power network architectures will lead to viable solutions to the energy management issue with high level of reliability and security. This dissertation is aimed at developing and verifying new techniques for distributed control by deploying DC microgrids, involving distributed renewable generation and energy storage, through the operating AC power system. To achieve the findings of this dissertation, an energy system architecture was developed involving AC and DC networks, both with distributed generations and demands. The various components of the DC microgrid were designed and built including DC-DC converters, voltage source inverters (VSI) and AC-DC rectifiers featuring novel designs developed by the candidate. New control techniques were developed and implemented to maximize the operating range of the power conditioning units used for integrating renewable energy into the DC bus. The control and operation of the DC microgrids in the hybrid AC/DC system involve intelligent energy management. Real-time energy management algorithms were developed and experimentally verified. These algorithms are based on intelligent decision-making elements along with an optimization process. This was aimed at enhancing the overall performance of the power system and mitigating the effect of heavy non-linear loads with variable intensity and duration. The developed algorithms were also used for managing the charging/discharging process of plug-in electric vehicle emulators. The protection of the proposed hybrid AC/DC power system was studied. Fault analysis and protection scheme and coordination, in addition to ideas on how to retrofit currently available protection concepts and devices for AC systems in a DC network, were presented. A study was also conducted on the effect of changing the distribution architecture and distributing the storage assets on the various zones of the network on the system's dynamic security and stability. A practical shipboard power system was studied as an example of a hybrid AC/DC power system involving pulsed loads. Generally, the proposed hybrid AC/DC power system, besides most of the ideas, controls and algorithms presented in this dissertation, were experimentally verified at the Smart Grid Testbed, Energy Systems Research Laboratory. All the developments in this dissertation were experimentally verified at the Smart Grid Testbed.

Clean hydrogen production and carbon dioxide capture methods

Fossil fuels constitute a significant fraction of the world's energy demand. The burning of fossil fuels emits huge amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Therefore, the limited availability of fossil fuel resources and the environmental impact of their use require a change to alternative energy sources or carriers (such as hydrogen) in the foreseeable future. The development of methods to mitigate carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere is equally important. Hence, extensive research has been carried out on the development of cost-effective technologies for carbon dioxide capture and techniques to establish hydrogen economy. Hydrogen is a clean energy fuel with a very high specific energy content of about 120MJ/kg and an energy density of 10Wh/kg. However, its potential is limited by the lack of environment-friendly production methods and a suitable storage medium. Conventional hydrogen production methods such as Steam-methane-reformation and Coal-gasification were modified by the inclusion of NaOH. The modified methods are thermodynamically more favorable and can be regarded as near-zero emission production routes. Further, suitable catalysts were employed to accelerate the proposed NaOH-assisted reactions and a relation between reaction yield and catalyst size has been established. A 1:1:1 molar mixture of LiAlH 4, NaNH2 and MgH2 were investigated as a potential hydrogen storage medium. The hydrogen desorption mechanism was explored using in-situ XRD and Raman Spectroscopy. Mesoporous metal oxides were assessed for CO2 capture at both power and non-power sectors. A 96.96% of mesoporous MgO (325 mesh size, surface area = 95.08 ± 1.5 m2/g) was converted to MgCO 3 at 350°C and 10 bars CO2. But the absorption capacity of 1h ball milled zinc oxide was low, 0.198 gCO2 /gZnO at 75°C and 10 bars CO2. Interestingly, 57% mass conversion of Fe and Fe 3O4 mixture to FeCO3 was observed at 200°C and 10 bars CO2. MgO, ZnO and Fe3O4 could be completely regenerated at 550°C, 250°C and 350°C respectively. Furthermore, the possible retrofit of MgO and a mixture of Fe and Fe3O 4 to a 300 MWe coal-fired power plant and iron making industry were also evaluated.

Development of distributed generation infrastructure for microgrid connectivity to operational power systems

Distributed Generation (DG) from alternate sources and smart grid technologies represent good solutions for the increase in energy demands. Employment of these DG assets requires solutions for the new technical challenges that are accompanied by the integration and interconnection into operational power systems. A DG infrastructure comprised of alternate energy sources in addition to conventional sources, is developed as a test bed. The test bed is operated by synchronizing, wind, photovoltaic, fuel cell, micro generator and energy storage assets, in addition to standard AC generators. Connectivity of these DG assets is tested for viability and for their operational characteristics. The control and communication layers for dynamic operations are developed to improve the connectivity of alternates to the power system. A real time application for the operation of alternate sources in microgrids is developed. Multi agent approach is utilized to improve stability and sequences of actions for black start are implemented. Experiments for control and stability issues related to dynamic operation under load conditions have been conducted and verified.

Switching Patterns and Steady-State Analysis of Grid-Connected and Stand-Alone Single-Stage Boost-Inverters for PV Applications

Renewable or sustainable energy (SE) sources have attracted the attention of many countries because the power generated is environmentally friendly, and the sources are not subject to the instability of price and availability. This dissertation presents new trends in the DC-AC converters (inverters) used in renewable energy sources, particularly for photovoltaic (PV) energy systems. A review of the existing technologies is performed for both single-phase and three-phase systems, and the pros and cons of the best candidates are investigated. In many modern energy conversion systems, a DC voltage, which is provided from a SE source or energy storage device, must be boosted and converted to an AC voltage with a fixed amplitude and frequency. A novel switching pattern based on the concept of the conventional space-vector pulse-width-modulated (SVPWM) technique is developed for single-stage, boost-inverters using the topology of current source inverters (CSI). The six main switching states, and two zeros, with three switches conducting at any given instant in conventional SVPWM techniques are modified herein into three charging states and six discharging states with only two switches conducting at any given instant. The charging states are necessary in order to boost the DC input voltage. It is demonstrated that the CSI topology in conjunction with the developed switching pattern is capable of providing the required residential AC voltage from a low DC voltage of one PV panel at its rated power for both linear and nonlinear loads. In a micro-grid, the active and reactive power control and consequently voltage regulation is one of the main requirements. Therefore, the capability of the single-stage boost-inverter in controlling the active power and providing the reactive power is investigated. It is demonstrated that the injected active and reactive power can be independently controlled through two modulation indices introduced in the proposed switching algorithm. The system is capable of injecting a desirable level of reactive power, while the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) dictates the desirable active power. The developed switching pattern is experimentally verified through a laboratory scaled three-phase 200W boost-inverter for both grid-connected and stand-alone cases and the results are presented.

Hybrid Power System Intelligent Operation and Protection Involving Distributed Architectures and Pulsed Loads

Efficient and reliable techniques for power delivery and utilization are needed to account for the increased penetration of renewable energy sources in electric power systems. Such methods are also required for current and future demands of plug-in electric vehicles and high-power electronic loads. Distributed control and optimal power network architectures will lead to viable solutions to the energy management issue with high level of reliability and security. This dissertation is aimed at developing and verifying new techniques for distributed control by deploying DC microgrids, involving distributed renewable generation and energy storage, through the operating AC power system. To achieve the findings of this dissertation, an energy system architecture was developed involving AC and DC networks, both with distributed generations and demands. The various components of the DC microgrid were designed and built including DC-DC converters, voltage source inverters (VSI) and AC-DC rectifiers featuring novel designs developed by the candidate. New control techniques were developed and implemented to maximize the operating range of the power conditioning units used for integrating renewable energy into the DC bus. The control and operation of the DC microgrids in the hybrid AC/DC system involve intelligent energy management. Real-time energy management algorithms were developed and experimentally verified. These algorithms are based on intelligent decision-making elements along with an optimization process. This was aimed at enhancing the overall performance of the power system and mitigating the effect of heavy non-linear loads with variable intensity and duration. The developed algorithms were also used for managing the charging/discharging process of plug-in electric vehicle emulators. The protection of the proposed hybrid AC/DC power system was studied. Fault analysis and protection scheme and coordination, in addition to ideas on how to retrofit currently available protection concepts and devices for AC systems in a DC network, were presented. A study was also conducted on the effect of changing the distribution architecture and distributing the storage assets on the various zones of the network on the system’s dynamic security and stability. A practical shipboard power system was studied as an example of a hybrid AC/DC power system involving pulsed loads. Generally, the proposed hybrid AC/DC power system, besides most of the ideas, controls and algorithms presented in this dissertation, were experimentally verified at the Smart Grid Testbed, Energy Systems Research Laboratory. All the developments in this dissertation were experimentally verified at the Smart Grid Testbed.