Importance of water source in controlling leaf leaching losses in a dwarf red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.) wetland

The southern Everglades mangrove ecotone is characterized by extensive dwarf Rhizophora mangle L. shrub forests with a seasonally variable water source (Everglades – NE Florida Bay) and residence times ranging from short to long. We conducted a leaf leaching experiment to understand the influence that water source and its corresponding water quality have on (1) the early decay of R. mangle leaves and (2) the early exchange of total organic carbon (TOC) and total phosphorus (TP) between leaves and the water column. Newly senesced leaves collected from lower Taylor River (FL) were incubated in bottles containing water from one of three sources (Everglades, ambient mangrove, and Florida Bay) that spanned a range of salinity from 0 to 32‰, [TOC] from 710 to 1400 μM, and [TP] from 0.17 to 0.33 μM. We poisoned half the bottles in order to quantify abiotic processes (i.e., leaching) and assumed that non-poisoned bottles represented both biotic (i.e., microbial) and abiotic processes. We sacrificed bottles after 1,2, 5, 10, and 21 days of incubation and quantified changes in leaf mass and changes in water column [TOC] and [TP]. We saw 10–20% loss of leaf mass after 24 h—independent of water treatment—that leveled off by Day 21. After 3 weeks, non-poisoned leaves lost more mass than poisoned leaves, and there was only an effect of salinity on mass loss in poisoned incubations—with greatest leaching-associated losses in Everglades freshwater. Normalized concentrations of TOC in the water column increased by more than two orders of magnitude after 21 days with no effect of salinity and no difference between poisoned and non-poisoned treatments. However, normalized [TP] was lower in non-poisoned incubations as a result of immobilization by epiphytic microbes. This immobilization was greatest in Everglades freshwater and reflects the high P demand in this ecosystem. Immobilization of leached P in mangrove water and Florida Bay water was delayed by several days and may indicate an initial microbial limitation by labile C during the dry season.

Water source utilization and foliar nutrient status differs between upland and flooded plant communities in wetland tree islands

Tree islands in the Everglades wetlands are centers of biodiversity and targets of restoration, yet little is known about the pattern of water source utilization by the constituent woody plant communities: upland hammocks and flooded swamp forests. Two potential water sources exist: (1) entrapped rainwater in the vadose zone of the organic soil (referred to as upland soil water), that becomes enriched in phosphorus, and (2) phosphorus-poor groundwater/surface water (referred to as regional water). Using natural stable isotope abundance as a tracer, we observed that hammock plants used upland soil water in the wet season and shifted to regional water uptake in the dry season, while swamp forest plants used regional water throughout the year. Consistent with the previously observed phosphorus concentrations of the two water sources, hammock plants had a greater annual mean foliar phosphorus concentration over swamp forest plants, thereby supporting the idea that tree island hammocks are islands of high phosphorus concentrations in the oligotrophic Everglades. Foliar nitrogen levels in swamp forest plants were higher than those of hammock plants. Linking water sources with foliar nutrient concentrations can indicate nutrient sources and periods of nutrient uptake, thereby linking hydrology with the nutrient regimes of different plant communities in wetland ecosystems. Our results are consistent with the hypotheses that (1) over long periods, upland tree island communities incrementally increase their nutrient concentration by incorporating marsh nutrients through transpiration seasonally, and (2) small differences in micro-topography in a wetland ecosystem can lead to large differences in water and nutrient cycles.

Effects of hydrologic and water quality drivers on periphyton dynamics in the southern Everglades

Everglades periphyton mats are tightly-coupled autotrophic (algae and cyanobacteria) and heterotrophic (eubacteria, fungi and microinvertebrates) microbial assemblages. We investigated the effect of water column total phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations, water depth and hydroperiod on periphyton of net production, respiration, nutrient content, and biomass. Our study sites were located along four transects that extended southward with freshwater sheetflow through sawgrass-dominated marsh. The water source for two of the transects were canal-driven and anchored at canal inputs. The two other transects were rain-driven (ombrotrophic) and began in sawgrass-dominated marsh. Periphyton dynamics were examined for upstream and downstream effects within and across the four transects. Although all study sites were characterized as short hydroperiod and phosphorus-limited oligotrophic, they represent gradients of hydrologic regime, water source and water quality of the southern Everglades. Average periphyton net production of 1.08 mg C AFDW−1 h−1 and periphyton whole system respiration of 0.38 mg C AFDW−1 h−1 rates were net autotrophic. Biomass was generally highest at ombrotrophic sites and sites downstream of canal inputs. Mean biomass over all our study sites was high, 1517.30 g AFDW m−2. Periphyton was phosphorus-limited. Average periphyton total phosphorus content was 137.15 μg P g−1 and average periphyton total N:P ratio was 192:1. Periphyton N:P was a sensitive indicator of water source. Even at extremely low mean water total phosphorus concentrations ( ≤ 0.21 μmol l−1), we found canal source effects on periphyton dynamics at sites adjacent to canal inputs, but not downstream of inflows. These canal source effects were most pronounced at the onset of wet season with initial rewetting. Spatial and temporal variability in periphyton dynamics could not solely be ascribed to water quality, but was often associated with both hydrology and water source.

Factors affecting the concentration and flux of materials in two southern Everglades mangrove wetlands

Concentrations and fluxes of C, N, and P were measured in dwarf and fringe mangrove wetlands along the Taylor River, Florida, USA from 1996 to 1998. Data from these studies revealed considerable spatial and temporal variability. Concentrations of C, N, and P in the dwarf wetland showed seasonal trends, while water source was better at explaining concentrations in the fringe wetland. The total and dissolved organic carbon (TOC and DOC), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) content of both wetlands was higher during the wet season or when water was flowing to the south (Everglades source). Concentrations of nitrate plus nitrite (NOx –), ammonium (NH4 +), and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) in the fringe wetland were all highest during the dry season or northerly flow (bay source). Nutrient concentrations most effectively explained patterns of flux in both wetlands. Increased wetland uptake of a given constituent was usually a function of its availability in the water column. However, the release of NOx – from the dwarf wetland was related to the NH4 + concentration, suggesting a nitrification signal. Nitrogen flux in the dwarf wetland was also related to surface water salinity and temperature. Our findings indicate that freshwater Everglades marshes are an important source of dissolved organic matter to these wetlands, while Florida Bay may be a source of dissolved inorganic nutrients. Our data also suggest that temperature, salinity, and nutrient concentrations (as driven by season and water source) influence patterns of materials flux in this mangrove wetland. Applying long-term water quality data to the relationships we extracted from these flux data, we estimated that TN and TP were imported by the dwarf wetland 87 ± 10 and 48 ± 17% of the year, respectively. With Everglades restoration, modifications in freshwater delivery may have considerable effects on the exchanges of nutrients and organic matter in these transitional mangrove wetlands.

Sea level rise and South Florida coastal forests

Coastal ecosystems lie at the forefront of sea level rise. We posit that before the onset of actual inundation, sea level rise will influence the species composition of coastal hardwood hammocks and buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus L.) forests of the Everglades National Park based on tolerance to drought and salinity. Precipitation is the major water source in coastal hammocks and is stored in the soil vadose zone, but vadose water will diminish with the rising water table as a consequence of sea level rise, thereby subjecting plants to salt water stress. A model is used to demonstrate that the constraining effect of salinity on transpiration limits the distribution of freshwater-dependent communities. Field data collected in hardwood hammocks and coastal buttonwood forests over 11 years show that halophytes have replaced glycophytes. We establish that sea level rise threatens 21 rare coastal species in Everglades National Park and estimate the relative risk to each species using basic life history and population traits. We review salinity conditions in the estuarine region over 1999–2009 and associate wide variability in the extent of the annual seawater intrusion to variation in freshwater inflows and precipitation. We also examine species composition in coastal and inland hammocks in connection with distance from the coast, depth to water table, and groundwater salinity. Though this study focuses on coastal forests and rare species of South Florida, it has implications for coastal forests threatened by saltwater intrusion across the globe.

Flux of organic carbon in a riverine mangrove wetland in the Florida Coastal Everglades

Short-term (daily) and seasonal variations in concentration and flux of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) were examined over 15 tidal cycles in a riverine mangrove wetland along Shark River, Florida in 2003. Due to the influence of seasonal rainfall and wind patterns on Shark River’s hydrology, samplings were made to include wet, dry and transitional (Norte) seasons. We used a flume extending from a tidal creek to a basin forest to measure vertical (vegetated soil/water column) and horizontal (mangrove forest/tidal creek) flux of DOC. We found significant (p < 0.05) variations in surface water temperature, salinity, conductivity, pH and mean concentration of DOC with season. Water temperature and salinity followed seasonal patterns of air temperature and rainfall, while mean DOC concentration was highest during the dry season (May), followed by the wet (October) and ‘Norte’ (December) seasons. This pattern of DOC concentration may be due to a combination of litter production and inundation pattern of the wetland. In contrast to daily (between tides) variation in DOC flux between the mangrove forest and tidal creek, daily variations of mean water quality were not significant. However, within-tide variation of DOC flux, dissolved oxygen content and salinity was observed. This indicated that the length of inundation and water source (freshwater vs. saltwater) variation across tidal cycles influenced water quality and DOC flux in the water column. Net DOC export was measured in October and December, suggesting the mangrove forest was a source of DOC to the adjacent tidal creek during these periods. Net annual export of DOC from the fringe mangrove to both the tidal creek and basin mangrove forest was 56 g C m−2 year−1. The seasonal pattern in our flux results indicates that DOC flux from this mangrove forest may be governed by both freshwater discharge and tidal range.

Hydro-Meteorology and Water Budget of the Mara River Basin Under Land Use Change Scenarios

Mara is a transboundary river located in Kenya and Tanzania and considered to be an important life line to the inhabitants of the Mara-Serengeti ecosystem. It is also a source of water for domestic water supply, irrigation, livestock and wildlife. The alarming increase of water demand as well as the decline in the river flow in recent years has been a major challenge for water resource managers and stakeholders. This has necessitated the knowledge of the available water resources in the basin at different times of the year. Historical rainfall, minimum and maximum stream flows were analyzed. Inter and intra-annual variability of trends in streamflow are discussed. Landsat imagery was utilized in order to analyze the land use land cover in the upper Mara River basin. The semi-distributed hydrological model, Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to model the basin water balance and understand the hydrologic effect of the recent land use changes from forest-to-agriculture. The results of this study provided the potential hydrological impacts of three land use change scenarios in the upper Mara River basin. It also adds to the existing literature and knowledge base with a view of promoting better land use management practices in the basin.