Frugivory and Seed Dispersal by Crocodilians: An Overlooked Form of Saurochory?

Saurochory (seed dispersal by reptiles) among crocodilians has largely been ignored, probably because these reptiles are generally assumed to be obligate carnivores incapable of digesting vegetable proteins and polysaccharides. Herein we review the literature on crocodilian diet, foraging ecology, digestive physiology and movement patterns, and provide additional empirical data from recent dietary studies of Alligator mississippiensis. We found evidence of frugivory in 13 of 18 (72.2%) species for which dietary information was available, indicating this behavior is widespread among the Crocodylia. Thirty-four families and 46 genera of plants were consumed by crocodilians. Fruit types consumed by crocodilians varied widely; over half (52.1%) were fleshy fruits. Some fruits are consumed as gastroliths or ingested incidental to prey capture; however, there is little doubt that on occasion, fruit is deliberately consumed, often in large quantities. Sensory cues involved in crocodilian frugivory are poorly understood, although airborne and waterborne cues as well as surface disturbances seem important. Crocodilians likely accrue nutritional benefits from frugivory and there are no a priori reasons to assume otherwise. Ingested seeds are regurgitated, retained in the stomach for indefinite and often lengthy periods, or passed through the digestive tract and excreted in feces. Chemical and mechanical scarification of seeds probably occurs in the stomach, but what effects these processes have on seed viability remain unknown. Because crocodilians have large territories and undertake lengthy movements, seeds are likely transported well beyond the parent plant before being voided. Little is known about the ultimate fate of seeds ingested by crocodilians; however, deposition sites could prove suitable for seed germination. Although there is no evidence for a crocodilian-specific dispersal syndrome similar to that described for other reptiles, our review strongly suggests that crocodilians function as effective agents of seed dispersal. Crocodilian saurochory offers a fertile ground for future research.

Consumer (dis)satisfaction response to disconfirmation: An examination of the form and the underlying process

The purpose of this dissertation was to examine the form of the consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction (CS/D) response to disconfirmation. In addition, the cognitive and affective processes underlying the response were also explored. ^ Respondents were provided with information from a prior market research study about a new brand of printer that was being tested. This market research information helped set prior expectations regarding the print quality. Subjects were randomly assigned to an experimental condition that manipulated prior expectations to be either positive or negative. Respondents were then provided with printouts that had performance quality that was either worse (negative disconfirmation) or better (positive disconfirmation) than the prior expectations. In other words, for each level of expectation, respondents were assigned to either positive or negative disconfirmation condition. Subjects were also randomly assigned to a condition of either a high or low level of outcome involvement. ^ Analyses of variance indicated that positive disconfirmation led to a more intense CS/D response than negative disconfirmation, even though there was no significant difference in the intensity for positive and negative disconfirmation. Intensity of CS/D was measured by the distance of the CS/D rating from the midpoint of the scale. The study also found that although outcome involvement did not influence the polarity of the CS/D response, the more direct measures of processing involvement such as the subjects' concentration, attention and care in evaluating the printout did have a significant positive effect on CS/D intensity. ^ Analyses of covariance also indicated that the relationship between the intensity of the CS/D response and the intensity of the disconfirmation was mediated by the intensity of affective responses. Positive disconfirmation led to more intense affective responses than negative disconfirmation. ^