A historical study of selected documents from the period 1890--1920 with implications for understanding success in school

During the years 1890–1920, the public school education system established itself as the medium to transmit American values, knowledge and culture. This study described and explained why some individuals were destined to fail, and others succeed in America's public schools. The exploratory questions guiding this study were: What elements constitute society's perspective of whom it should educate during the years 1890–1920? What variables influenced society's perspective of whom it should educate during the years 1890–1920? ^ After explaining these issues, educators will then have a better understanding and awareness of why certain educational practices are currently implemented and will be able to critically evaluate which ones should be continued. The methodology chosen was historical. The approach for analyzing the data was coding. The information was coded in order to determine themes, concepts and ideas amongst the documents and as portrayed in the literature. The first step was to seek out patterns and then to write out words and phrases to represent these topics. Then, these phrases were attributed to networks. ^ The data indicated that public schools during this era were designed to conform and assimilate the new immigrants and factory workers in an efficient and standardized manner. Efficiency and standardization in production became the American way for government, commerce, personal, lives and the school. Many different approaches to education emerged during this time period, specifically those, which emphasized individuality; but only those, which paralleled the ideology of efficiency, standardization and conformity were adopted. Those students who were unable to conform to society's criteria for success were penalized in the classroom, on IQ examinations and national standardized exams. ^ This study was illuminative in that it explained the root cause as to why some individuals are meant to succeed while others are penalized in the classroom. Future studies connecting standardized assessments and learning styles are suggested. ^

A fourth-grade teacher's classroom perspective

Countless books have been written about what is good and what is bad about our educational system. No matter what the book or what the theory, all agree the classroom teacher is critical to the education process. Many influences affect classroom teaching, some of which are beyond her control, but a caring classroom teacher has a central role in the instruction of children The purpose of this case study was to inquire into the beliefs and behaviors of one elementary school teacher in a low socio-economic school and study her classroom perspective. This teacher of five years was a reading specialist and was teaching a full fourth grade curriculum for the first time. Because she suffered from math phobia, she was apprehensive about teaching mathematics. ^ This qualitative study required intense, time-consuming interviews, long and frequent observations, critical journaling, field notes and artifacts provided by the teacher. The resulting descriptive data was coded into categories and reassembled into themes that captured the essence of the teacher's beliefs. ^ The overarching themes found were: first, the teacher's caring attitude towards her students, cultivated by her affectionate family, her mother who is an elementary school teacher, and rich and rewarding elementary school experiences, second, her implementation of the curriculum, influenced by her passion for reading, her math phobia, and standardized tests and third, her attitudes toward her workplace, school administrators and collegiality among teachers. During the school year this teacher “owned” her classroom and was a full participant in its life! Her dedication to teaching was fostered by the satisfaction of knowing she has a profound impact and makes a significant difference in her students' lives. ^ This study suggested areas for further research on the following topics: consideration of teachers with math phobia, the effect of standardized tests on areas of the curriculum and the value of computers in the elementary school classroom. ^

Effects of phonetic/phonics instruction on reading pronunciation (French level I)

Pronunciation training has been traditionally viewed as of limited importance in a communicatively oriented foreign language curriculum (Pennington & Richards, 1986). Many language instructors seemingly deny the usefulness of phonetic training and rely on a listen-and-repeat method with the use of audiotapes (Bate, 1989; Callamand & Pedoya, 1984; Jones, 1997). Beginners in French classes face the challenge of mastering a complex sound and grapheme-phoneme correspondence system without the benefit of specific instruction. Their pronunciation errors develop mostly from bad habits while decoding from print to sound (Dansereau, 1995). ^ The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of basic phonetic/phonics instruction on reading pronunciation accuracy in a French I language course. ^ The sample consisted of two groups of French I students from Florida International University, who received the same instruction in French language and culture during the fall semester of 1999. Only the experimental group received additional phonetic/phonics training. ^ The instrument consisted of three recorded reading tasks: isolated familiar words, isolated unfamiliar words, and dialogue. Research questions were analyzed using a one-way multivariate analysis of variance. Significant differences were found between the two groups on scores for each of the three sections of the instrument, and on the total scores. These findings support the hypothesis of the study and reveal the effectiveness of phonetic/phonics training for beginners of French. ^ The findings imply that beginning language students should receive the minimum knowledge they need to master the French phoneme-grapheme (sound-spelling) system. ^

The teacher portfolio as a vehicle for reflective practice

This qualitative case study was limited to an eighteen-hour workshop on “Constructing a Reflective Teacher Portfolio.” The study was conducted at the Nova Center, a research and development school, in the Broward County Public School System. Six participants took part in the study. The study examined the process used by the participants as they constructed their portfolios, explored the reflective aspect of their construction, and investigated the impact that constructing a portfolio had on them and their work. ^ Data was gathered using interviews, observations, and artifacts. Content analysis and the combined frameworks of Van Manen (1977), Smyth (1989), and Pugach and Johnson (1990) were used to examine the data. The data indicates that the portfolios and workshop were not as effective as anticipated in encouraging the participants to examine their work. The following themes emerged as a result of this study: (a) teachers begin constructing their portfolios by gathering material that represents past successes; (b) examining philosophies of education, writing a personal narrative and sharing with colleagues stimulates reflective practice; (c) teachers have difficulty expressing their personal beliefs about education; (d) creating a reflective portfolio is a constructivist process that encourages divergent products; (e) teachers initially do not recognize a strong connection between constructing a portfolio and improving their work; and (f) constructing a portfolio may be an inside-out approach to educational reform. ^ Recommendations were presented to improve the workshop, specifically focusing on teachers examining their practices and learning from students' work. Additional study is needed to evaluate the influence of these changes in the workshop. ^

Teacher talk: A community of colleagues that values practical teacher knowledge through sharing experiences

The purpose of this study was to describe the experiences of five educators participating in a teacher-initiated learning community that valued practical teacher knowledge. Connelly and Clandinin (2000) argued that practical teacher knowledge grew out of experience through interaction in the professional knowledge landscape. Collaboration that promoted teacher learning was the foundation to effective school change (Wood, 1997). This teacher-initiated learning community consisted of members who had equal status and collaborated by participating in discourse on curriculum and instruction. The collegiality of the community fostered teacher professionalism that improved practice and benefited the school. This study focused on the following research questions: (1) What was the experience of these five educators in this learning community? (2) What did these five individuals understand about the nature of practical teacher knowledge? (3) According to the participants, what was the relationship between teacher empowerment and effective school change? ^ The participants were chosen because each voluntarily attended this teacher-initiated learning community. Each participant answered questions regarding the experience during three semi-structured tape-recorded interviews. The interviews were transcribed, and significant statements of meaning were extracted. Using a triangulation of ideas that were common to at least three of the participants ensured the trustworthiness of the analysis. These statements were combined to describe what was experienced and how the participants described their experience. The emerging themes were the characteristics of and the relationships, methods, conditions, and environment for the teachers. The teachers described how a knowledge base of practical teacher knowledge was gained as a spirit of camaraderie developed. The freedom that the teachers experienced to collaborate and learn fostered new classroom practice that affected school change as student interaction and productivity increased. ^ The qualitative analysis of this study provided a description of a learning community that valued practical teacher knowledge and fostered professional development. This description was important to educational stakeholders because it demonstrated how practical teacher knowledge was gained during the teachers' daily work. By sharing every day experiences, the teacher talk generated collaboration and accountability that the participants felt improved practice and fostered a safe, productive learning environment for students. ^

The efficacy of the Ellison model as a retention initiative for first semester freshmen

The freshman year is the most critical year of matriculation for students in higher education. One in four freshman students drops out of higher education after the first year. In fact, the first two to six weeks of college represent a very critical transition period when students make the decision to persist or depart from the institution. Many students leave because they are unable to make a connection with the institution. Retention is often profoundly affected by student involvement in the academic environment, satisfaction with the campus climate and the institution's response to diversity. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine and evaluate an effective institutional response that promotes freshman retention and academic success. The tenets (diversity training, conflict management, and community building) of a mentoring model were applied to the freshman experience seminar class (experimental group) as a pedagogical method of instruction to determine its efficacy as a retention initiative when compared with the traditional freshman experience seminar class (comparison group). ^ The quantitative study employed a quasi-experimental research design based on Astin's (1993) I-E-O model. The model examined the relationships between the characteristics students bring with them to college, called inputs, their experiences in the environment during college, and the outcomes students achieved during matriculation. Fifty-two students enrolled in the freshman seminar class participated in the study. ^ Demographic data and input variables between groups were analyzed using chi-square, t-tests and multivariate analyses. Overall, students in the experimental group had significantly higher satisfaction (campus climate) scores than the comparison group. An analysis of the students' willingness to interact with others from diverse groups indicated a significant difference between groups, with the experimental group scoring higher than the comparison group. Students in the experimental group were significantly more involved in campus activities than students in the comparison group. No significant differences were found between groups relative to the mean grade point average and re-enrollment for fall semester 2001. ^ While the mentoring model did not directly affect re-enrollment of students, the model did promote student satisfaction with the institution, an appreciation for diversity of contact and it encouraged involvement in the campus community. These are all essential outcomes of a quality retention program. ^

An analysis of teachers' perceptions of informal science professional development

Science professional development, which is fundamental to science education improvement, has been described as being weak and fragmentary. The purpose of this study was to investigate teachers' perceptions of informal science professional development to gain an in-depth understanding of the essence of the phenomenon and related science-teaching dispositions. Based on the frameworks of phenomenology, constructivism, and adult learning theory, the focus was on understanding how the phenomenon was experienced within the context of teachers' everyday world. ^ Data were collected from eight middle-school teachers purposefully selected because they had participated in informal programs during Project TRIPS (Teaching Revitalized Through Informal Programs in Science), a collaboration between the Miami-Dade school district, government agencies (including NASA), and non-profit organizations (including Audubon of Florida). In addition, the teachers experienced hands-on labs offered through universities (including the University of Arizona), field sites, and other agencies. ^ The study employed Seidman's (1991) three-interview series to collect the data. Several methods were used to enhance the credibility of the research, including using triangulation of the data. The interviews were transcribed, color-coded and organized into six themes that emerged from the data. The themes included: (a) internalized content knowledge, (b) correlated hands-on activities, (c) enhanced science-teaching disposition, (d) networking/camaraderie, (e) change of context, and (f) acknowledgment as professionals. The teachers identified supportive elements and constraints related to each theme. ^ The results indicated that informal programs offering experiential learning opportunities strengthened understanding of content knowledge. Teachers implemented hands-on activities that were explicitly correlated to their curriculum. Programs that were conducted in a relaxed context enhanced teachers' science-teaching dispositions. However, a lack of financial and administrative support, perceived safety risks, insufficient reflection time, and unclear itineraries impeded program implementation. The results illustrated how informal educators can use this cohesive model as they develop programs that address the supports and constraints to teachers' science instruction needs. This, in turn, can aid teachers as they strive to provide effective science instruction to students; notions embedded in reforms. Ultimately, this can affect how learners develop the ability to make informed science decisions that impact the quality of life on a global scale. ^

Use of conjoint analysis to examine beliefs related to the practice of early literacy instruction

The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between teacher beliefs and actual classroom practice in early literacy instruction. Conjoint analysis was used to measure teachers' beliefs on four early literacy factors—phonological awareness, print awareness, graphophonic awareness, and structural awareness. A collective case study format was then used to measure the correspondence of teachers' beliefs with their actual classroom practice. ^ Ninety Project READS participants were given twelve cards in an orthogonal experimental design describing students that either met or did not meet criteria on the four early literacy factors. Conjoint measurements of whether the student is an efficient reader were taken. These measurements provided relative importance scores for each respondent. Based on the relative important scores, four teachers were chosen to participate in a collective case study. ^ The conjoint results enabled the clustering of teachers into four distinct groups, each aligned with one of the four early literacy factors. K-means cluster analysis of the relative importance measurements showed commonalities among the ninety respondents' beliefs. The collective case study results were mixed. Implications for researchers and practitioners include the use of conjoint analysis in measuring teacher beliefs on the four early literacy factors. Further, the understanding of teacher preferences on these beliefs may assist in the development of curriculum design and therefore increase educational effectiveness. Finally, comparisons between teachers' beliefs on the four early literacy factors and actual instructional practices may facilitate teacher self-reflection thus encouraging positive teacher change. ^

Predictors of developmental gains in children enrolled in an early intervention setting

The purpose of this research was to determine whether initial developmental delay, site of intervention, frequency of intervention, age of the child, socio-economic status (SES), gender and ethnicity significantly predict developmental gains in a group of children enrolled in an early intervention setting. The records of 134 children enrolled in an inner-city program in Miami, Florida were reviewed for inclusion in this study. ^ Demographic variables, site placement and treatment frequencies were collected during a retrospective chart review. Level of delay was expressed using the developmental quotient and developmental gain was calculated using the mean gain on age equivalent scores or developmental tests. A multiple regression analysis was performed to determine which of the above variables significantly predicted developmental gains. Multivariate analysis compared developmental gains for all the developmental domains based on intervention site (center versus home-based) while controlling for developmental delay. ^ Children made greater developmental gains if they had higher developmental quotients and if they were younger at the time services were initiated. Frequency of intervention significantly improved developmental outcomes in children attending center-based programs. Children attending center-based programs also made significantly greater gains in gross motor skills compared to children attending home-based programs. ^ These findings emphasize the importance of early screening and referral of children with developmental delay and adjusting intervention for the child's developmental quotient. Children should receive intense treatment to maximize results. Decisions regarding program placement should be individualized according to the child's unique developmental pattern. Policy and program decisions affecting the curriculum of a child in early intervention need to reflect these multivariate considerations. ^

The impact of looping of fourth grade students on their reading achievement

This study examines the effects of looping (staying with the same teacher for two grade levels) on the reading achievement of fourth graders within a large, urban, multicultural school. Looping was expected to have a positive effect on reading achievement and reading qualities. Additional benefits, such as its effect on anxiety levels and self-concept were also assumed to accrue from looping. ^ A causal-comparative design was employed. Four existing classrooms consisting of eighty-one fourth grade students comprised the treatment and comparison groups. The two “looping” treatment groups consisted of students who had the same teacher for their third and fourth grade school years. The remaining two classes comprised the comparison groups. Pre- and post-tests for reading achievement total scores and subscores for main idea and comparisons were obtained using the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT). Assessments were also obtained from the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children, modified to reflect reading, and the Self-Perception Profile for Children. The difference in pre- and post-test FCAT scores were analyzed via a four group simple ANOVA to examine the effects of the looping model on reading achievement and reading qualities. Similar simple ANOVAs were performed to investigate the relationship of looping to anxiety and self-concept. ^ The findings led to the conclusion that looping was significantly related to improvement in reading achievement and reading qualities. In addition, the hypothesized relationship of lower anxiety in the looping group compared to the comparison group was supported. There were no significant effects on self-concept for any of the comparisons. ^ The study clearly demonstrated the positive effects of looping, on total reading achievement scores, on reading qualities of fourth grade students who participated in looping classes and on differences in students' anxiety. Looping did not have an effect on general self-concept. ^ The results demonstrate the effects of looping on teaching methods. In looping practice teachers have the advantage of knowing their students and the students' readiness and can make adaptations of teaching methods accordingly. From the students' perspective, the looped students do not have to adapt to a new teacher and thus, experience lower anxiety. ^

The predictive power of homework assignments on student achievement in grade three

Homework has been a controversial issue in education for the past century. Research has been scarce and has yielded results at both ends of the spectrum. This study examined the relationship between homework performance (percent of homework completed and percent of homework correct), student characteristics (SAT-9 score, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status), perceptions, and challenges and academic achievement determined by the students' average score on weekly tests and their score on the FCAT NRT mathematics assessment. ^ The subjects for this study consisted of 143 students enrolled in Grade 3 at a suburban elementary school in Miami, Florida. Pearson's correlations were used to examine the associations of the predictor variables with average test scores and FCAT NRT scores. Additionally, simultaneous regression analyses were carried out to examine the influence of the predictor variables on each of the criterion variables. Hierarchical regression analyses were performed on the criterion variables from the predictor variables. ^ Homework performance was significantly correlated with average test score. Controlling for the other variables homework performance was highly related to average test score and FCAT NRT score. ^ This study lends support to the view that homework completion is highly related to student academic achievement at the lower elementary level. It is suggested that at the elementary level more consideration be given to the amount of homework completed by students and to utilize the information in formulating intervention strategies for student who may not be achieving at the appropriate levels. ^

Teachers' perceptions of the national board certification process: Developing a sense of professionalism

This study describes and explains the experiences and perceptions of six public school teachers who had undergone the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards national certification process as a vehicle for promoting a teacher's sense of professionalism. Of these six participants, two achieved National Board certification, two did not achieve National Board certification, and two are awaiting results of their certification status. The study took place over a period of eleven months and focused on the participants' perceptions regarding the National Board certification process as it affected their sense of (a) efficacy and (b) professionalism. Data for this collective case study were gathered from interviews, portfolios and videotapes, and artifacts. Using case analysis, this study's participants' responses gathered through the interview process were examined. ^ The findings indicated that participants had concerns about the National Board certification process in the following areas: process, sense of efficacy, and sense of professionalism. All participants reported the process to be overwhelmingly demanding. Analysis of the data also reveals that those who were successful in achieving National Board certification had a greater sense of efficacy than those who did not. A disappointing finding was that the National Board process impacting participants' sense of professionalism could not be sustained; however, the participants in this study suggested the process was a step towards providing opportunities for collaboration, collegiality, and reflective practice. This study raises the question as to whether or not the espoused purposes of National Board certification are achieved via the certification process. ^

Effectiveness of the Teaching Enrichment Activities to Minorities (TEAM) program at increasing underrepresented students in gifted programs

This study examined the effectiveness of the TEAM (Teaching Enrichment Activities to Minorities) program in preparing and identifying underrepresented students for entrance into the gifted program. Miami-Dade County Public Schools (M-DCPS) developed the TEAM program as an intervention program aimed at developing student's thinking skills and critical thinking skills in all subject areas and prepare students for possible placement into the gifted program. ^ A systematic sampling strategy was utilized to select three TEAM schools from each of the six regions in M-DCPS for the sample, for a total of 18 schools. A pool of the students that participated in the TEAM program in 2003-2004 in the 18 schools selected were identified as the TEAM Sample students. A matching sample was created from 18 public schools in Miami-Dade County that did not implement the TEAM program in 2003-2004. The Matching Sample created a match for 806 students in the TEAM sample, for a total of 1612 subjects for the study. ^ This study used a logistical regression design to analyze the relationships of multiple independent variables, including: ethnicity, limited English proficiency, gender, free/reduced lunch status, grade level, reading achievement, mathematics achievement, and participation TEAM on the dependent variables of referral for the gifted program and eligibility into the gifted program. The first analysis found the variables of grade level, participation in TEAM, reading achievement, and mathematics achievement were all significant variables in determining if a student was referred for the gifted program. The second analysis found the variables of grade level, gender, free/reduced lunch status, reading achievement, and mathematics achievement were all significant variables in determining if a student was eligible for the gifted program. ^ Recommendations based on the results of this study include the expansion of the TEAM program in M-DCPS to include additional grade levels and schools. Additionally, adopting a broadened definition of giftedness and reviewing the screening and placement policies for potentially gifted students is recommended. Adopting multicultural and broader definitions of giftedness and constructing better tools and programs, such as TEAM, for assessing and identifying potential gifted students, represent small steps towards creating equitable education for all students. ^

A study of teachers' espoused instructional beliefs

The purpose of this study was to investigate teachers' espoused instructional beliefs and whether they differed in relation to schools' socioeconomic status, extent of teachers' educational background, or extent of teachers' classroom experience. The study comprised a total of 242 Miami-Dade County public school educators who responded to a thirty-nine question Likert scale, Literacy Instructional Practices Questionnaire. Eighteen schools, three from each of the six regions, were purposively selected based on the socioeconomic status of students. Nine participants were interviewed using semi-standardized interview procedures and open-ended questioning techniques. ^ Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) results revealed that teachers' espoused beliefs concerning the instruction of literacy and forces and influences affecting instruction do not significantly differ depending on schools' socioeconomic status, extent of teachers' educational background, or extent of teachers' classroom experience. The majority of teachers appear to follow a top-down generated direct instruction model. Generally, students are taught as a whole class and ability grouped for specific skill instruction utilizing commercially produced reading and language arts texts. ^ There was no evidence of a relationship between teachers' espoused beliefs concerning the model of instruction that they practice or teachers' espoused beliefs concerning research and its application to practice and the three independent variables. Interview data corroborated much of the information garnered through the questionnaire. However, interview participants espoused the belief that research did not influence their selection of instructional practices. ^ Although teachers perceive of themselves as eclectic in their espoused instructional beliefs, they appear to follow a skills based direct instruction pedagogy in practice. Much of what teachers believe constitutes effective practice, few researchers recommend, affirming the findings of Calderhead (1993) and the National Educational Research Policy and Priorities Board (U.S. Department of Education, 1998, p. 18) that “educators rarely know research, seek it out, or act in accordance with its results.” ^

The effects of a General Instructional Strategies course on the utilization of effective instructional strategies by teachers

The focus of this study was to explain the extent to which theoretically effective teaching strategies taught in a course on generic instructional strategies are being implemented by teachers in their actual teaching practice. ^ A multivariate causal-comparative (ex-post-facto) design was used to answer the research question. A teacher observation protocol, the General Instructional Strategies Analysis (GISA) was constructed and used to assess the utilization of instructional strategies in the classroom. The data of this study also included open-ended field notes taken during observations. ^ Multivariate Analyses of Variance (MANOVA) was used to compare the teaching strategies (set, effective explanation, hands-on activity, cooperative learning activity, higher order questioning, closure) of the group who had taken a general instructional strategies course (N=36) and the group who had not (N=36). Results showed a statistically significant difference between the two groups. The group who had taken the course implemented these strategies more effectively in almost all categories of effective teaching. Follow-up univariate tests of the dependent variables showed significant differences between the two groups in five of the six areas (hands-on activity being an exception). A second MANOVA compared the two groups on the effective use of attending behaviors (teacher movement/eye contact/body language/physical space, brief verbal acknowledgements/voice inflection/modulation/pitch, use of visuals, prompting/probing, praise/feedback/rewards, wait-time I and II). Results also showed a multivariate difference between the two groups. Follow-up univariate tests on the related dependent variables showed that five of the six were significantly different between the two groups. The group who had taken the course implemented the strategies more effectively. An analysis of the field notes provided further evidence regarding the pervasiveness of these differences between the teaching practices of the two groups. ^ It was concluded that taking a course in general instructional strategies increases the utilization of effective strategies in the classroom by teachers. ^