Understanding the cycle of violence: An examination of bully and victim social roles in early childhood

The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of bullying and victimization in a metropolitan area. A cross-sectional study with kindergarten (n = 127) and first grade (n = 126) children was conducted in two Miami-Dade County Public Schools and three private schools in the same area. Bullying and victimization behavior and social acceptance were assessed through peer nomination and the mental health outcomes of depression and anxiety were assessed through children's self-report. Teachers and parents also completed a social behavior scale for each child. Three areas of analyses were conducted pertaining to membership classification of social roles and the social acceptance and mental health outcomes associated with those roles, reporter agreement within the social roles, and the psychometric properties of the Childhood Social Behavior Scale. Results showed an overall negative pattern of adjustment for children identified as a member of any of the negative social roles. Also, the results support a new analytic approach to the investigation of social roles. The implication of these findings for early identification, social policy, and effective prevention strategies are discussed. ^

Sibling relations in preadolescence and adolescence: Compensatory and buffering effects

The current study is an examination of how support from siblings relates to psychological and academic well-being in preadolescence and adolescence in general, and the buffering and compensatory effects of sibling support in particular. Participants for the study were 694 African-American, European-American, and Hispanic-American students in grades 6 and 8. Participants were interviewed in school regarding their social support, ecological risk, and psychological well-being. Academic well-being was assessed using teacher reports and school records. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that greater brother support was associated with more positive school attitudes and with higher overall self-esteem. In addition, sister support moderated the relationship between ecological risk and school adaptation. In terms of a compensatory effect, students under low mother support conditions receiving greater support from brothers, and students under low friend support conditions receiving greater support from brothers exhibited higher school achievement. The potential benefits of sibling support warrant a closer examination of the wide ranging issues involved in sibling relations. ^

Social support, risk, and adjustment of immigrant preadolescents

The current study was designed to explore the salience of social support, immigrant status, and risk in middle childhood and early adolescence across two time periods as indicated by measures of school adjustment and well-being. Participants included 691 children of public elementary schools in grades 4 and 6 who were interviewed in 1997 (Time 1) and reinterviewed two years later (Time 2); 539 were U.S.-born, and 152 were foreign-born. ^ Repeated measures multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA's) were conducted to assess the effects of immigrant status and risk on total support, well-being, and school adjustment from Time 1 to Time 2. Follow-up analyses, including Student-Newman-Keuls post hoc tests, were used to test the significance of the differences among the means of support categories (low and high), immigrant status (U.S. born and non-U.S. born), risk (low and high) and time (time 1 and time 2). ^ Results showed that immigrant participants in the high risk group reported significantly lower levels of support than their peers. Further, children of low risk at Time 2 indicated the highest levels of support. Second, immigrant preadolescents, preadolescents who reported low levels of social support, and preadolescents of the high risk reported lower levels of emotional well-being. There was also an interaction of support by risk by time, indicating that children who are at risk and had low levels of social support reported more emotional problems at Time 1. Finally, preadolescents who are at risk and preadolescents who reported lower levels of support were more likely to show school adaptation problems. Findings from this study highlight the importance of a multivariable approach to the study of support, emotional adjustment, and academic adjustment of immigrant preadolescents. ^

Risk factors that predict maladaptive outcomes among sexually abused girls presenting for services at a community agency

The purpose of this study was to determine which factors predicted maladaptive outcomes in sexually abused children. Key factors were aggregated into four categories: abuse characteristics risk factors, individual-level risk factors, family disruption risk factors, and social disruption risk factors. It was hypothesized that (a) individual-level risk factors (e.g., school performance, child alcohol/substance abuse) and (b) abuse characteristics risk factors (e.g., longer duration/frequency of abuse, use of force/threats of force, intrafamilial abuse) would predict higher levels of trauma symptoms. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that (a) family disruption risk factors (e.g., family alcohol/substance use, family psychopathology) and (b) social disruption risk factors (e.g., parental divorce, homelessness, witnessing homicide or violence) would moderate the impact of prior sexual abuse and predict higher levels of trauma symptoms. ^ The participants were 110 female children (5 to 18 years old) presenting for treatment for sexual abuse at a community agency (The Journey Institute) in Miami, Florida. This study conducted a retrospective analysis of an archival data set collected over a three-year period (1998–2001). The measures completed upon intake included The Journey Psychosocial Assessment and The Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC; Briere, 1996). Using Pearson correlations and hierarchical multiple regression analysis, this study found that abuse characteristics risk factors and individual-level risk factors were predictive of maladaptive outcomes in this sample of sexually abused girls. However, no moderating effects were found for family disruption risk factors or social disruption risk factors. Therefore, the results of these analyses provided support for the contention that abuse characteristics and individual-level risk factors were appropriate targets for treatment for sexually abused girls. Moreover, limitations of this study, implications for treatment, and directions for future research were discussed. ^

Mentoring and minority student development

Positive student development is a complex and multidimensional process, and is therefore best understood through interdisciplinary approaches. Recently, researchers studying the optimization of student development have responded to the challenge by using and integrating concepts from both educational and human developmental theories (King & Magdola, 1999). This theoretical confluence holds significant promise for ethnic minority college students due to the particular challenges these students often encounter. This research assesses individuals involved in an undergraduate educational and professional development mentoring intervention designed to optimize student development for ethnic minority students. First, in order to explore how development is fostered for minority college students, three objectives were pursued. The first objective was to assess the goals that students set for themselves and the degree of personal expressiveness they have in relation to their chosen goals. The second objective was to identify the types of challenges and obstacles that minority students perceive during their college years. The third objective was to identify the need for and availability of resources and support in overcoming obstacles to college success. Specifically, it was assessed whether (and in what ways) students involved in the intervention perceive significantly fewer obstacles and limitations to their development and greater availability of support and resources as a result of their involvement with the mentoring intervention. Second, the relationship between intervention involvement and students' perceptions of institutional and mentor nurturance and support was assessed. ^ A survey was conducted with 77 undergraduate students at Florida International University. A comparison-control design was used to compare students who were involved in the intervention (n = 38) and students who were not involved (n = 39) on variables related to their goals, perceived obstacles and supports, and college experiences. Results indicate that students in the intervention and students in the control group differed in goal orientation and perceived obstacles and supports. The two groups did not differ in their perceptions of institutional nurturance and support. Implications for the development and refinement of interventions aimed at fostering professional development for minority students are discussed. ^

Child parent dyadic treatment for anxiety disorders in youths

There is evidence for the efficacy of treatments for childhood anxiety disorders; however, less is known about whether including parents in the child's treatment enhances child treatment response. There also are few studies that have examined predictors of treatment completion/non-completion and success/failure. In this dissertation, a child focused individual treatment was compared to a dyadic child-parent treatment. In dyadic, parent anxiety symptoms and child-parent relationships were targeted. Based on the Transfer of Control Model proposed by Silverman and Kurtines (1996a, b, 2005), it was hypothesized that treatment changes in parent anxiety symptoms and child-parent relationships would be related to positive child treatment response. ^ Participants were 119 youths (ages 6 to 16 years, M = 9.93 SD = 2.75; 68 girls) and their parents. All youth were born in the U.S. but had various backgrounds; 40 were European American, 73 were Latinos/as, 6 were of other ethnic backgrounds or did not report their ethnicity. Participants signed informed consent (assent for youths) and completed a pretreatment assessment. Participants were randomized to a child individual treatment or dyadic treatment, were assessed immediately after treatment and one year post treatment. Findings showed that treated youths improved across all measures over time. Comparison of treatment conditions across all measures showed no statistically significant differences between the child individual and dyadic treatment. Reductions in parent anxiety symptoms and improvements in child-parent relationships were significantly related to child treatment change at posttreatment and at one year follow-up across treatments. No factors differentiated completers from non-completers and only parent reported child internalizing behavior problems were significantly negatively related to child treatment response. ^ The study findings support a premise of the Transfer of Control Model that changes in parent anxiety symptoms and child-parent relationships are related to child treatment response. The study findings show that children can be successfully treated when parents are included as co-clients in dyadic treatment, thereby supporting the utility of this approach in practice. ^

Parental involvement: Its relation to achievement in a multiethnic sample of newly immigrated students

The current study examined how parental involvement is related to the academic adaptation and performance of a multiethnic sample of newly immigrant students from South America and the Caribbean---Argentina, Colombia, Cuba, Haiti, and English-speaking Caribbean countries. Six hundred twenty-two participants attending elementary, middle and high school in Miami-Dade and Broward Counties were interviewed during two consecutive years at their respective schools. Parents completed surveys at home and returned them by mail. ^ Three forms of parent involvement were chosen as predictor variables---(1) parental contact and communication with school, (2) parental monitoring of children's school-related activities at home, and (3) parental expectations regarding children's academic achievement. Academic performance indicators obtained from school records were students' grade point averages for math and reading (GPA), FCAT-SSS (Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test-Sunshine State Standards) scores, and FCAT-NRT (Norm Referenced Test) scores. Hypotheses were (a) that the forms of parent involvement would differ across the different cultural groups and (b) that parent involvement would relate to students' achievement, regardless of the specific form of involvement. ^ Results indicated that Cuban and Colombian parents differed significantly in terms of monitoring school-related activities of their children and had higher expectations for their children than Haitian, West-Indian, or Argentinean parents. Cuban parents were more likely to be actively engaged in communication with their children's schools than parents of the other ethnic groups. Multiple regression analyses indicated that the three forms of parent involvement accounted for a significant proportion of GPA and FCAT-SSS scores, after controlling for the effects of demographic variables---grade level, gender, and ethnicity. Given interactions of the parent involvement variables by country of origin for GPA, separate analyses indicated that parent involvement appeared to be most effective for Cubans and West Indians. Results are discussed in terms of the need for experimental intervention studies to identify causal relationships between parent involvement and academic achievement. ^

Patterns of acculturative stress: Continuity, discontinuity, and adjustment among Latino youth

This study evaluated inter- and intra-individual changes in acculturation, acculturative stress, and adaptation experiences, as well as their associations with adjustment outcomes among a group of Latino adolescents in South Florida. Specifically, the current study investigated the incidence, changes, and effects of stressors that arise from acculturation experiences (e.g., related to culture, discrimination, language difficulties) among Latino youth by employing a person-centered approach and a longitudinal research design. Four separate groups of analyses were conducted to investigate (a) within-group differences in levels of reported acculturative stress, (b) patterns of continuity and discontinuity in levels of acculturative stress across time, (c) adjustment outcomes associated with distinct patterns of acculturative stress within each measurement occasion, and (d) predictive relations between longitudinal acculturative stress trajectories in early adolescence and psychosocial adjustment outcomes in young adulthood. ^ Results from the multivariate analyses indicated great within group heterogeneity in acculturative stress among Latino youth during early adolescence, as well as significant continuity and discontinuity in the patterns of shifts among acculturative stress profiles between contiguous measurement occasions. Within each developmental period, membership in acculturative stress clusters was significantly and differentially associated with multiple adjustment outcomes, suggesting that maladaptive outcomes are more likely to occur among Latino adolescents experiencing high levels of psychological distress across multiple acculturative domains. In general, Latino youth acculturation is best understood as multi-dimensional, to be variable across time, and to be fluid and responsive to multiple factors and influences. Implications for preventive strategies are discussed with regard to acculturation and developmental psychology research literatures. ^

The development and testing of a multivariate model of differentiation of self among Hispanics

Individuals of Hispanic origin are the nation's largest minority (13.4%). Therefore, there is a need for models and methods that are culturally appropriate for mental health research with this burgeoning population. This is an especially salient issue when applying family systems theories to Hispanics, who are heavily influenced by family bonds in a way that appears to be different from the more individualistic non-Hispanic White culture. Bowen asserted that his family systems' concept of differentiation of self, which values both individuality and connectedness, could be universally applied. However, there is a paucity of research systematically assessing the applicability of the differentiation of self construct in ethnic minority populations. ^ This dissertation tested a multivariate model of differentiation of self with a Hispanic sample. The manner in which the construct of differentiation of self was being assessed and how accurately it represented this particular ethnic minority group's functioning was examined. Additionally, the proposed model included key contextual variables (e.g., anxiety, relationship satisfaction, attachment and acculturation related variables) which have been shown to be related to the differentiation process. ^ The results from structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses confirmed and extended previous research, and helped to illuminate the complex relationships between key factors that need to be considered in order to better understand individuals with this cultural background. Overall results indicated that the manner in which Hispanic individuals negotiate the boundaries of interconnectedness with a sense of individual expression appears to be different from their non-Hispanic White counterparts in some important ways. These findings illustrate the need for research on Hispanic individuals that provides a more culturally sensitive framework. ^

Family and group cognitive behavior therapy: Evaluation of treatment outcome and treatment specificity

This dissertation examined the efficacy of family cognitive behavior treatment (FCBT) and group cognitive behavior treatment (GBCT) for reducing anxiety disorders in children and adolescents using several approaches: clinical significant change, equivalence testing, and analyses of variance. It also examined treatment specificity in terms of targeting family/parents (in FCBT) and peers/group (in GCBT) contextual variables using two main approaches: analyses of variance and structural equation modeling (SEM). The sample consisted of 143 children and their parents who presented to the Child Anxiety and Phobia Program housed within the Child and Family Psychosocial Research Center at Florida International University. Diagnostic interviews and questionnaires were administered to assess youth anxiety. Questionnaires were administered to assess child and parent views of family/parents and peers/group contextual variables. In terms of clinical significant change, results indicated that 84.6% of youth in FCBT and 71.2% of youth in GBCT no longer met diagnostic criteria for their primary/targeted anxiety disorder. In addition, results from analyses of variance indicated that FCBT and GCBT were both efficacious in reducing anxiety disorders in youth across both child and parent ratings. Results using both analyses of variance and structural equation modeling also indicated that there was no meaningful treatment specificity between FCBT and GCBT in terms of either family/parents or peers/group contextual variables. That is, child social skills improved in GCBT in which these skills were targeted and in FCBT in which these skills were not targeted; parenting skills improved in FCBT in which these skills were targeted and in GCBT in which these skills were not targeted. Clinical implications and future research recommendations are discussed.

Evaluating the external validity of comorbid disorders in youth using rating scales and behavior observations

To evaluate the theoretical underpinnings of current categorical approaches to classify childhood psychopathological conditions, this dissertation examined whether children with a single diagnosis of an anxiety disorder (ANX only) and children with an anxiety diagnosis comorbid with other diagnoses (i.e., anxiety + anxiety disorder [ANX + ANX], anxiety + depressive disorder [ANX + DEP], and anxiety + disruptive disorder [ANX + EXT]) could be differentiated using external validation criteria of clinical phenomenology (i.e., levels of anxiety, depression, and internalizing, externalizing and total behavior problems). This study further examined whether the four groups could be differentiated in terms of their interaction patterns with their parents and peers, respectively. The sample consisted of 129 youth and their parents who presented to the Child Anxiety and Phobia Program (CAPP) housed within the Child and Family Psychosocial Research Center at Florida International University, Miami. Youth were between the ages of 8 and 14 years old. A battery of questionnaires was used to assess participants' clinical presentation in terms of levels of anxiety, depression, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Family and peer interaction were evaluated through rating scales and through behavior observation tasks. Statistics based on the parameter estimates of the structured equation models indicated that all the comorbid groups were significantly different from the pure anxiety disorder group when it came to depression indices of clinical phenomenology. Further, significant differences appeared mainly in terms of the ANX + DEP comorbid group relative to the other comorbid groups. In terms of Parent-child interaction the ANX + EXT and the ANX + DEP comorbid groups were differentiated from the pure anxiety disorder and ANX + ANX comorbid group when it came to the appraisal of the parent/child relationship by the parent, and the acceptance subscale according to the mother report. In terms of peer-child interaction the ANX + EXT and the ANX + DEP comorbid groups were statistically significantly different from the pure anxiety disorder only when it came to the positive interactions and the social skills as rated by mother. Limitations and future research recommendations are discussed.

Alcohol use and sexual victimization among Hispanic college women

Sexual victimization of young women typically occurs within a context of alcohol use, such that women are more likely to be victimized on days on which they consume alcohol compared to days on which no alcohol is consumed. Additionally, most research on sexual victimization of women has focused on forced sexual acts; consequently, little is known about forms sexual victimization that college women typically experience, such as brief (e.g., unwanted touching) or verbally coerced experiences (e.g., doing sexual things to prevent a partner from leaving). Finally, there is a need for more research on the processes underlying college women's drinking and the specific mechanisms through which drinking increases risk for sexual victimization. This dissertation sought to replicate recent findings of a temporal association between alcohol use and sexual victimization, and to investigate whether or not binge use increased risk for victimization, within a sample of young Hispanic college women, using repeated-measures logistic regression. This study also aimed to identify and explore typologies of victimization experiences in order to better understand types of sexual victimization common among young college women. Finally, the validity of a model of alcohol use and sexual victimization was investigated using structural equation modeling techniques. The results confirmed and extended previous research by demonstrating an increase in the conditional probability of sexual victimization on days of alcohol consumption compared with days of no alcohol consumption, and on days of binge alcohol consumption compared with days of moderate alcohol consumption. Sexual victimization experiences reported in this study were diverse, and cluster analysis was used to identify and explore specific typologies of victimization experiences, including intimate relationship victimization, brief victimization with stranger, prolonged victimization with acquaintance, and workplace victimization. The results from structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses were complex and helped to illuminate the relationships between reasons for drinking, alcohol use, childhood sexual abuse, sexual victimization, psychopathology, and acculturation-related factors among Hispanic college women. These findings have implications for the design of university-based prevention and intervention efforts aimed at reducing rates of alcohol-related sexual victimization within Hispanic populations.

Differentiation of self and emerging adulthood

Today's young people are progressing from adolescence into adulthood differently than past generations, including taking a longer time to make this transition. Some believe that the developmental markers and tasks of this transitional period are unique enough to merit the designation of a new life stage--"emerging adulthood." Recently, this new life stage of emerging adulthood has received increasing attention in the developmental literature, including attention to the probable causes for its evolution. However, little is known about specific aspects of intra- and interpersonal development that occur during emerging adulthood. The purpose of this study was to empirically assess hypothesized relations between variables associated with the psychological constructs of attachment, psychosocial maturity, and differentiation of self, in a sample of emerging adults. Structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses indicated an association between the variables measuring these constructs (anxiety, avoidance, I-position, reactivity, cutoff, fusion, identity, and intimacy). The results from structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses helped to confirmed and extended previous research by demonstrating significant associations between attachment, psychosocial maturity, and differentiation of self through the variables operationalizing these constructs. Psychosocial maturity predicted differentiation of self (with intimacy predicting emotional cutoff and identity predicting cutoff and I-position). Attachment also predicted differentiation of self (with anxiety predicting all differentiation variables, and avoidance predicting emotional reactivity and cutoff). However, associations between anxiety and cutoff and between avoidance and cutoff were mediated by psychosocial identity and intimacy, and associations between anxiety and I-position were mediated by identity. Thus, these results corroborate and elaborate previous research conducted on these constructs. Specifically, relational tendencies thought to be influenced by attachment security impact interpersonal functioning in emerging adulthood, but this association is influenced by the degree of resolution of key psychosocial tasks.

Relational predictors of condom use among adolescents in outpatient substance abuse treatment

Past HIV interventions have been critiqued for their failure to incorporate relational factors linked to condom use. Furthermore, few studies have focused on the relational context of sexual risk behavior among adolescents at elevated risk for HIV/STI exposure in the context of substance use. Therefore, this study evaluated the influence of three key relational factors (rejection sensitivity, intimacy dating goals, intercourse-related anxiety) salient for understanding condom use among adolescents in outpatient substance abuse treatment in South Florida. Structural equation modeling was used to test relational factors as direct and indirect predictors of condom use. Specifically, the current study investigated the influence of rejection sensitivity and intimacy dating goals on percentage of protected intercourse, with intercourse-related anxiety modeled as a mediator of this association. ^ Results obtained from the hypothesized structural model suggest rejection sensitivity and intimacy dating goals are significant predictors of percentage of protected intercourse. As expected, rejection sensitivity was related to lower levels of percentage of protected intercourse via heightened levels of intercourse-related anxiety and was not related directly to percentage of protected intercourse. Intercourse-related anxiety was indicated as a partial mediator between rejection sensitivity and percentage of protected intercourse. In contrast, intimacy dating goals was related to lower levels of percentage of protected intercourse directly. The findings demonstrate the importance of relational factors in condom use among adolescents in outpatient substance abuse treatment. Levels of protected intercourse are likely to increase when relational factors are targeted among adolescents in this high-risk population. Implications for prevention strategies targeting this high-risk subgroup of adolescents are discussed. ^

Socioemotional outcomes of children sexually abused during early childhood

This study investigated the nature and impact of the sexual abuse of children ages birth through 6 years. The purpose was to enhance knowledge about this understudied population through examination of: (1) characteristics of the abuse; (2) socioemotional developmental outcomes of young victims; and (3) potential moderating effects of family dynamics. An ecological-developmental theoretical framework was applied. Secondary data analysis was conducted using data collected from the consortium Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN). A sample of 250 children was drawn from LONGSCAN data, including children who were sexually abused (n=125) and their nonabused counterparts (n=125), matched on demographic variables. Results revealed that young victims of sexual abuse were disproportionately female (91 girls; 73%). The sexual abuse committed against these youngsters was severe in nature, with 111 children (89%) experiencing contact offenses ranging from fondling to forcible rape. Sixty-two percent of child victims demonstrated borderline, clinical, or less than adequate functioning on normative, expected socioemotional outcomes. Child victims reported low degrees of perceived competence and satisfaction in the social environment. When compared with their nonabused counterparts, child victims demonstrated significantly poorer socioemotional functioning, as evidenced by aggressive behaviors, attention and thought problems. Sexually abused youngsters also reported lower self-perceptions of cognitive and physical competence and maternal acceptance. Family dynamic factors did not significantly moderate the relationships between abuse and socioemotional outcomes, with one exception. The caregivers’ degree of empathy for their children had a significant moderating effect on the children’s social problems. This study contributes to an otherwise scant body of literature on the sexual abuse of preschoolers. Findings provide implications for social work practice, especially in the development of assessment and prevention strategies.