Group membership salience and task performance

Purpose – Social loafing is described in the literature as a frequent problem reducing individuals' performance when working in groups. This paper aims to utilize the social identity approach and proposes that under conditions of heightened group salience social loafing can be reduced and turned into social laboring (i.e. increased performance). Design/methodology/approach – Two experimental studies are conducted to examine the impact of participant's group membership salience on task performance. In Study 1, school teachers work either in coactive or in collective working conditions on brainstorming tasks. In Study 2, participants perform both a brainstorming task and a motor task. Findings – The results show social laboring effects. As predicted, participants in the high salient group conditions outperform participants in the low salient group conditions and the coactive individual condition. Practical implications – The results indicate that rather than individuating group members or tasks to overcome social loafing, managers can increase group performance by focusing on group members' perceptions of their groups as important and salient. Originality/value – The studies presented in this paper show that social identity theory and self categorization theory can fruitfully be applied to the field of group performance. The message of these studies for applied settings is that collective work in groups must not necessarily negatively impact performance, i.e. social loafing. By heightening the salience of group memberships groups can even outperform coactively working individuals.

Transformational leadership, innovative behavior and task performance:test of mediation and moderation processes

We use the self-concept based theory of leadership and social exchange theory to hypothesize processes linking transformational leadership to follower performance outcomes. Specifically, we hypothesize that (a) transformational leadership relates to followers' work engagement both directly and indirectly through their psychological states, (b) work engagement relates to innovative behavior, (c) innovative behavior relates to task performance, and (d) the work engagement–innovative behavior relationship is moderated by leader–member exchange. Results from a test of these relationships in a sample of employees of a large telecommunication company in China largely support our hypothesized model.

Human resource management and organizational performance:evidence from the retail banking sector

Underpinned by the resource-based view (RBV), social exchange theory (SET), and a theory of intrinsic motivation (empowerment), I proposed and tested a multi-level model that simultaneously examines the intermediate linkages or mechanisms through which HPWS impact individual and organizational performance. First and underpinned by RBV, I examined at the unit level, collective human capital and competitive advantage as path-ways through which the use of HPWS influences – branch market performance. Second and-, underpinned by social exchange (perceived organizational support) and intrinsic motivation (psychological empowerment) theories, I examined cross and individual level mechanisms through which experienced HPWS may influence employee performance. I tested the propositions of this study with multisource data obtained from junior and senior customer contact employees, and managers of 37 branches of two banks in Ghana. Results of the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis revealed that (i) collective human capital partially mediated the relationship between management-rated HPWS and competitive advantage, while competitive advantage completely mediated the influence of human capital on branch market performance. Consequently, management-rated HPWS influenced branch market performance indirectly through collective human capital and competitive advantage. Additionally, results of hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) tests of the cross-level influences on the motivational implications of HPWS revealed that (i) management-rated HPWS influenced experienced HPWS; (ii) perceived organizational support (POS) and psychological empowerment fully mediated the influence of experienced HPWS on service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB), and; (iii) service-oriented OCB mediated the influence of psychological empowerment and POS on service quality and task performance. I discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.

The relationship between self-awareness of attentional status, behavioral performance and oscillatory brain rhythms

High-level cognitive factors, including self-awareness, are believed to play an important role in human visual perception. The principal aim of this study was to determine whether oscillatory brain rhythms play a role in the neural processes involved in self-monitoring attentional status. To do so we measured cortical activity using magnetoencephalography (MEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while participants were asked to self-monitor their internal status, only initiating the presentation of a stimulus when they perceived their attentional focus to be maximal. We employed a hierarchical Bayesian method that uses fMRI results as soft-constrained spatial information to solve the MEG inverse problem, allowing us to estimate cortical currents in the order of millimeters and milliseconds. Our results show that, during self-monitoring of internal status, there was a sustained decrease in power within the 7-13 Hz (alpha) range in the rostral cingulate motor area (rCMA) on the human medial wall, beginning approximately 430 msec after the trial start (p < 0.05, FDR corrected). We also show that gamma-band power (41-47 Hz) within this area was positively correlated with task performance from 40-640 msec after the trial start (r = 0.71, p < 0.05). We conclude: (1) the rCMA is involved in processes governing self-monitoring of internal status; and (2) the qualitative differences between alpha and gamma activity are reflective of their different roles in self-monitoring internal states. We suggest that alpha suppression may reflect a strengthening of top-down interareal connections, while a positive correlation between gamma activity and task performance indicates that gamma may play an important role in guiding visuomotor behavior. © 2013 Yamagishi et al.

Attentional changes in pre-stimulus oscillatory activity within early visual cortex are predictive of human visual performance

Physiological and neuroimaging studies provide evidence to suggest that attentional mechanisms operating within the fronto-parietal network may exert top–down control on early visual areas, priming them for forthcoming sensory events. The believed consequence of such priming is enhanced task performance. Using the technique of magnetoencephalography (MEG), we investigated this possibility by examining whether attention-driven changes in cortical activity are correlated with performance on a line-orientation judgment task. We observed that, approximately 200 ms after a covert attentional shift towards the impending visual stimulus, the level of phase-resetting (transient neural coherence) within the calcarine significantly increased for 2–10 Hz activity. This was followed by a suppression of alpha activity (near 10 Hz) which persisted until the onset of the stimulus. The levels of phase-resetting, alpha suppression and subsequent behavioral performance varied between subjects in a systematic fashion. The magnitudes of phase-resetting and alpha-band power were negatively correlated, with high levels of coherence associated with high levels of performance. We propose that top–down attentional control mechanisms exert their initial effects within the calcarine through a phase-resetting within the 2–10 Hz band, which in turn triggers a suppression of alpha activity, priming early visual areas for incoming information and enhancing behavioral performance.

Exchange fairness and employee performance:An examination of the relationship between organizational politics and procedural justice

Data obtained from a manufacturing firm and a newspaper firm in India were used to examine the relationship between organizational politics and procedural justice in three separate studies. Study 1 constructively replicated research on the distinctiveness of the two constructs. Confirmatory factor analyses in which data from the manufacturing firm served as the development sample and data from the newspaper firm served as the validation sample demonstrated the distinctiveness of organizational politics and procedural justice. Study 2 examined the antecedents of the two constructs using data from the manufacturing firm. Structural equation modeling (SEM) results revealed formalization and participation in decision making to be positively related to procedural justice but negatively related to organizational politics. Further, authority hierarchy and spatial distance were positively related to organizational politics but unrelated to procedural justice. Study 3 examined the consequences of the two constructs in terms of task and contextual performance using data from the newspaper firm. Results of SEM analysis revealed procedural justice but not organizational politics to be related to task performance and the contextual performance dimensions of interpersonal facilitation and job dedication. © 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

On waveform analysis, the adaptive task technique, and the effect of vibration on manual control skill

A re-examination of fundamental concepts and a formal structuring of the waveform analysis problem is presented in Part I. eg. the nature of frequency is examined and a novel alternative to the classical methods of detection proposed and implemented which has the advantage of speed and independence from amplitude. Waveform analysis provides the link between Parts I and II. Part II is devoted to Human Factors and the Adaptive Task Technique. The Historical, Technical and Intellectual development of the technique is traced in a review which examines the evidence of its advantages relative to non-adaptive fixed task methods of training, skill assessment and man-machine optimisation. A second review examines research evidence on the effect of vibration on manual control ability. Findings are presented in terms of percentage increment or decrement in performance relative to performance without vibration in the range 0-0.6Rms'g'. Primary task performance was found to vary by as much as 90% between tasks at the same Rms'g'. Differences in task difficulty accounted for this difference. Within tasks vibration-added-difficulty accounted for the effects of vibration intensity. Secondary tasks were found to be largely insensitive to vibration except secondaries which involved fine manual adjustment of minor controls. Three experiments are reported next in which an adaptive technique was used to measure the % task difficulty added by vertical random and sinusoidal vibration to a 'Critical Compensatory Tracking task. At vibration intensities between 0 - 0.09 Rms 'g' it was found that random vibration added (24.5 x Rms'g')/7.4 x 100% to the difficulty of the control task. An equivalence relationship between Random and Sinusoidal vibration effects was established based upon added task difficulty. Waveform Analyses which were applied to the experimental data served to validate Phase Plane analysis and uncovered the development of a control and possibly a vibration isolation strategy. The submission ends with an appraisal of subjects mentioned in the thesis title.

Leader‐Member Exchange (LMX) and performance:a meta‐analytic review

This paper reports a meta-analysis that examines the relationship between leader-member exchange (LMX) relationship quality and a multidimensional model of work performance (task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance). The results show a positive relationship between LMX and task performance (146 samples, ρ = .30) as well as citizenship performance (97 samples, ρ = .34), and negatively with counterproductive performance (19 samples, ρ = -.24). Of note, there was a positive relationship between LMX and objective task performance (20 samples, ρ = .24). Trust, motivation, empowerment, and job satisfaction mediated the relationship between LMX and task and citizenship performance with trust in the leader having the largest effect. There was no difference due to LMX measurement instrument (e.g., LMX7, LMX-MDM). Overall, the relationship between LMX and performance was weaker when (a) measures were obtained from a different source or method and (b) LMX was measured by the follower than the leader (with common source- and method-biased effects stronger for leader-rated LMX quality). Finally, there was evidence for LMX leading to task performance but not for reverse or reciprocal directions of effects.

Leader-member exchange in a Chinese context:antecedents, outcomes and mediating role of psychological empowerment

This study examines organizational antecedents of LMX and the mediating influence of empowerment on the relationships between LMX and the work outcomes of job satisfaction, task performance and psychological withdrawal behavior. Data were obtained from employees of a listed Chinese company in Guangdong Province, People's Republic of China. The results revealed that: (a) supervisor control of rewards and work unit climate were related to LMX and (b) empowerment fully mediated the relationship between LMX and the work outcomes as hypothesized.

Trust as a mediator of the relationship between organizational justice and work outcomes:test of a social exchange model

Data obtained from full-time employees of a public sector organization in India were used to test a social exchange model of employee work attitudes and behaviors. LISREL results revealed that whereas the three organizational justice dimensions (distributive, procedural and interactional) were related to trust in organization only interactional justice was related to trust in supervisor. The results further revealed that relative to the hypothesized fully mediated model a partially mediated model better fitted the data. Trust in organization partially mediated the relationship between distributive and procedural justice and the work attitudes of job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and organizational commitment but fully mediated the relationship between interactional justice and these work attitudes. In contrast, trust in supervisor fully mediated the relationship between interactional justice and the work behaviors of task performance and the individually- and organizationally-oriented dimensions of citizenship behavior.

Relocation:a more complete picture

The idea that relocation can cause detriment in the lives of individuals is now relatively accepted in the management community, however much less attention has been devoted to studying the benefits of relocation. We present a more balanced picture by examining both positive and negative consequences of geographical transience in a sample of frequent movers. In total, 29 employees without families, 33 employees with families, 33 spouses, and 15 children participated in interviews for this research (N = 110). The research outlines 160 relocation consequences, including 53 positive outcomes not previously considered. Our findings confirm that relocation can bring about short- and long-term benefits for individuals including task performance, skill development, learning, growth, job satisfaction, continued development, attractive job assignments, career advancement and increased responsibility. In conclusion, findings suggest that, at least in terms of relocation, a more complete picture is actually also a more positive picture. So, whilst organisations should continue to aim to reduce or eliminate the negative consequences of relocation, they should also seek to maintain or enhance the positive outcomes of transience.

The Role of the big five personality traits, proactive behaviour, and socialisation influences in newcomer adjustment

During the early stages of employment, newly hired employees find out what their new organisations are like. Their first impressions are extremely important in determining the course of subsequent attitudes and behaviour. Recently, a considerable progress has been made towards the understanding of adjustment process, however, the literature remain divided along a number of fronts. Moreover, newcomer research has been conducted independent and irrespective of newcomer personality individual differences. This seems to be a critical oversight because there is overlap in predictions involving these constructs. The current research extended the previous one by examining these multiple antecedents, including Big Five personality traits of newcomer to the tandem process of adjustment as well as outcomes that immediate, or ?proximal? to the process of newcomer adjustment. Following a cross sectional pilot study of recent college graduate, a three- wave longitudinal study of newcomers in seven organisations examined Big Five personality traits, proactive behaviour, and socialisation influence (formal training, leaders, co-workers) as antecedents of proximal adjustment outcomes (group integration, political knowledge of organisation, and task performance). The main study results suggested that personality traits were related to proximal adjustment outcomes, specifically, Conscientiousness was positively related to all proximal adjustment outcomes. Openness to experience was related to task performance and political knowledge. Group integration is independently related to Agreeableness, Extraversion and Neuroticism. The socialisation influence moderate these relations, for example, leader socialisation moderate Conscientiousness as it relates to political knowledge and group integration, while co-worker moderate Extraversion as it relates to task performance. Finally, it was found that, the relationship between proximal adjustment outcomes and the personality dimensions Openness was mediated by proactive behaviour. Overall, the results suggested that individual differences have a role in newcomer adjustment as it facilitate the socialisation influence, and Big Five was one of the key determinants of newcomer adjustment.

Cognitive structures, strategies and instruction

This thesis is organised into three parts. In Part 1 relevant literature is reviewed and three critical components in the development of a cognitive approach to instruction are identified. These three components are considered to be the structure of the subject-matter, the learner's cognitive structures, and the learner's cognitive strategies which act as control and transfer devices between the instructional materials and the learner's cognitive structures. Six experiments are described in Part 2 which is divided into two methodologically distinct units. The three experiments of Unit 1 examined how learning from materials constructed from concept name by concept attribute matrices is influenced by learner or experimenter controlled sequence and organisation. The results suggested that the relationships between input organisation, output organisation and recall are complex and highlighted the importance of investigating organisational strategies at both acquisition and recall. The role of subjects previously acquired knowledge and skills in relation to the instructional material was considered to be an important factor. The three experiments of Unit 2 utilised a "diagramming relationships methodology" which was devised as one means of investigating the processes by which new information is assimilated into an individual's cognitive structure. The methodology was found to be useful in identifying cognitive strategies related to successful task performance. The results suggested that errors could be minimised and comprehension improved on the diagramming relationships task by instructing subjects in ways which induced successful processing operations. Part 3 of this thesis highlights salient issues raised by the experimental work within the framework outlined in Part 1 and discusses potential implications for future theoretical developments and research.

Experiments and observations on the behaviour and brain of the aging female mouse with special reference to dementia of the Alzheimer type

The objective of this research was to investigate the effects of normal aging and the additional effects of chronic exposure to two experimental diets, one enriched in aluminium, the other enriched in lecithin, on aspects of the behaviour and brain histology of the female mouse. The aluminium diet was administered in an attempt to develop a rodent model of Dementia of the Alzheimer Type (DAT). With normal aging, almost all assessed aspects of behaviour were found to be impaired. As regards cognition, selective impairments of single-trial passive avoidance and Morris place learning were observed. While all aspects of open-field behaviour were impaired, the degree of impairment was directly related to the degree of motoric complexity. Deficits were also observed on non-visual sensorimotor coordination tasks and in olfactory discrimination. Histologically, neuron loss, gliosis, vacuolation and congophilic angiopathy were observed in several of the brain regions/fibre tracts believed to contribute to the control of some of the assessed behaviours. The aluminium treatment had very selective effects on both behaviour and brain histology, inducing several features observed in DAT. Behaviourally, the treatment induced impaired spatial reference memory; reduced ambulation; disturbed olfactory function and induced the premature development of the senile pattern of swimming. Histologically, significant neuron loss and gliosis were observed in the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, amygdala, medial septum, pyriform and pr-frontal cortex. In addition, the brain distribution of congophilic angiopathy was significantly increased by the treatment. The lecithin treatment had effects on both non-cognitive and cognitive aspects of behaviour. The effects of aging on open-field ambulation and rearing were partially ameliorated by the treatment. A similar effect was observed for single-trial passive avoidance performance. Age-dependent improvements in acquisition/retention were observed in 17-23 month mice and Morris place task performance was improved in 11 and 17 month mice. Histologically, a partial sparing of neurons in the cerebellum, hippocampus, entorhinal cortex and subiculum was observed.

Ophthalmic factors in dyslexia

Although the role of ophthalmic factors in dyslexia remains the subject of controversy, recent research has indicated that the correlates of dyslexia may include binocular dysfunction, unstable motor ocular dominance, a deficit of the transient visual subsystem, and an anomaly that can be treated with tinted lenses. These features, typically, have been studied in isolation and their inter-relationship has received little attention. The aim of the present research was to investigate ophthalmic factors in dyslexia, with a particular emphasis on the interaction between optometric variables. Further aims were to establish the most appropriate investigative techniques for optometric practice and to explore the relationship between optometric and psychometric variables. A pilot study was used to refine the experimental design for a subsequent detailed study of 39 children with a specific reading disability and 43 good readers, who were selected from 240 children. The groups were matched for age, sex, and performance IQ. The following factors emerged as correlates of dyslexia: slight impaired visual acuity; reduced vergence amplitudes; increased vergence instability; decreased accommodative amplitude; poor peformance at tests that were designed to assess the function of the transient visual system; and slightly slower performance at a non-verbal simulated reading visual search task. The `transient system deficit', as measured by reduced flicker sensitivity, was significantly associated with decreased accommodative and vergence amplitudes. This links the motor and sensory visual correlates of dyslexia. Although the binocular dysfunction was correlated with increased symptoms, the difference in the groups' simulated reading visual search task performance was largely attributable to psychometric variables. The results suggest tht optometric problems may be a contributory factor in dyslexia, but are unlikely to play a key causative role. Several optometric variables were confounded by psychometric parameters, and this interaction should be a priority for future investigation.