Clogging in horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands

Horizontal Subsurface Flow Treatment Wetlands (HSSF TWs) are used by Severn Trent Water as a low-cost tertiary wastewater treatment for rural locations. Experience has shown that clogging is a major operational problem that reduces HSSF TW lifetime. Clogging is caused by an accumulation of secondary wastewater solids from upstream processes and decomposing leaf litter. Clogging occurs as a sludge layer where wastewater is loaded on the surface of the bed at the inlet. Severn Trent systems receive relatively high hydraulic loading rates, which causes overland flow and reduces the ability to mineralise surface sludge accumulations. A novel apparatus and method, the Aston Permeameter, was created to measure hydraulic conductivity in situ. Accuracy is ±30 %, which was considered adequate given that conductivity in clogged systems varies by several orders of magnitude. The Aston Permeameter was used to perform 20 separate tests on 13 different HSSF TWs in the UK and the US. The minimum conductivity measured was 0.03 m/d at Fenny Compton (compared with 5,000 m/d clean conductivity), which was caused by an accumulation of construction fines in one part of the bed. Most systems displayed a 2 to 3 order of magnitude variation in conductivity in each dimension. Statistically significant transverse variations in conductivity were found in 70% of the systems. Clogging at the inlet and outlet was generally highest where flow enters the influent distribution and exits the effluent collection system, respectively. Surface conductivity was lower in systems with dense vegetation because plant canopies reduce surface evapotranspiration and decelerate sludge mineralisation. An equation was derived to describe how the water table profile is influenced by overland flow, spatial variations in conductivity and clogging. The equation is calibrated using a single parameter, the Clog Factor (CF), which represents the equivalent loss of porosity that would reproduce measured conductivity according to the Kozeny-Carman Equation. The CF varies from 0 for ideal conditions to 1 for completely clogged conditions. Minimum CF was 0.54 for a system that had recently been refurbished, which represents the deviation from ideal conditions due to characteristics of non-ideal media such as particle size distribution and morphology. Maximum CF was 0.90 for a 15 year old system that exhibited sludge accumulation and overland flow across the majority of the bed. A Finite Element Model of a 15 m long HSSF TW was used to indicate how hydraulics and hydrodynamics vary as CF increases. It was found that as CF increases from 0.55 to 0.65 the subsurface wetted area increases, which causes mean hydraulic residence time to increase from 0.16 days to 0.18 days. As CF increases from 0.65 to 0.90, the extent of overland flow increases from 1.8 m to 13.1 m, which reduces hydraulic efficiency from 37 % to 12 % and reduces mean residence time to 0.08 days.

Surface and subsurface Vickers indentation cracks in SiC, Si3N4, and sialon ceramics

The nature of subsurface cracks formed under and around Vickers hardness indentations is often assumed rather than identified. Subsurface cracks in four engineering ceramics are revealed using a penetrant technique, and flaw dimensions are recorded. The resulting data are used to investigate several aspects of indentation cracking, such as crack shape, functional relationships between indentation load and flaw dimensions, and the performance of indentation fracture toughness equations. An R curve is constructed for each of the materials. © 1995 The Institute of Materials.

A comparison of in situ constant and falling head permeameter tests to assess the distribution of clogging within horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands

Clogging is the main operational problem associated with horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands (HSSF CWs). The measurement of saturated hydraulic conductivity has proven to be a suitable technique to assess clogging within HSSF CWs. The vertical and horizontal distribution of hydraulic conductivity was assessed in two full-scale HSSF CWs by using two different in situ permeameter methods (falling head (FH) and constant head (CH) methods). Horizontal hydraulic conductivity profiles showed that both methods are correlated by a power function (FH= CH 0.7821, r 2=0.76) within the recorded range of hydraulic conductivities (0-70 m/day). However, the FH method provided lower values of hydraulic conductivity than the CH method (one to three times lower). Despite discrepancies between the magnitudes of reported readings, the relative distribution of clogging obtained via both methods was similar. Therefore, both methods are useful when exploring the general distribution of clogging and, specially, the assessment of clogged areas originated from preferential flow paths within full-scale HSSF CWs. Discrepancy between methods (either in magnitude and pattern) aroused from the vertical hydraulic conductivity profiles under highly clogged conditions. It is believed this can be attributed to procedural differences between the methods, such as the method of permeameter insertion (twisting versus hammering). Results from both methods suggest that clogging develops along the shortest distance between water input and output. Results also evidence that the design and maintenance of inlet distributors and outlet collectors appear to have a great influence on the pattern of clogging, and hence the asset lifetime of HSSF CWs. © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011.

Clogging in subsurface-flow treatment wetlands:measurement, modeling and management

This paper reviews the state of the art in measuring, modeling, and managing clogging in subsurface-flow treatment wetlands. Methods for measuring in situ hydraulic conductivity in treatment wetlands are now available, which provide valuable insight into assessing and evaluating the extent of clogging. These results, paired with the information from more traditional approaches (e.g., tracer testing and composition of the clog matter) are being incorporated into the latest treatment wetland models. Recent finite element analysis models can now simulate clogging development in subsurface-flow treatment wetlands with reasonable accuracy. Various management strategies have been developed to extend the life of clogged treatment wetlands, including gravel excavation and/or washing, chemical treatment, and application of earthworms. These strategies are compared and available cost information is reported. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd.

Clogging in subsurface-flow treatment wetlands:occurrence and contributing factors

Clogging is a major operational and maintenance issue associated with the use of subsurface flow wetlands for wastewater treatment, and can ultimately limit the lifetime of the system. This review considers over two decades of accumulated knowledge regarding clogging in both vertical and horizontal subsurface flow treatment wetlands. The various physical, chemical and biological factors responsible for clogging are identified and discussed. The occurrence of clogging is placed into the context of various design and operational parameters such as wastewater characteristics, upstream treatment processes, intermittent or continuous operation, influent distribution, and media type. This information is then used to describe how clogging develops within, and subsequently impacts, common variants of subsurface flow treatment wetland typically used in the U.S., U.K., France and Germany. Comparison of these systems emphasized that both hydraulic loading rate and solids loading rate need to be considered when designing systems to operate robustly, i.e. hydraulic overloading makes horizontal-flow tertiary treatment systems in the U.K. more susceptible to clogging problems than vertical-flow primary treatment systems in France. Future research should focus on elucidating the underlying mechanisms of clogging as they relate to the design, operation, and maintenance of subsurface flow treatment wetlands. © 2010 Elsevier B.V.

A finite element approach to modelling the hydrological regime in horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment

A Finite Element Analysis (FEA) model is used to explore the relationship between clogging and hydraulics that occurs in Horizontal Subsurface Flow Treatment Wetlands (HSSF TWs) in the United Kingdom (UK). Clogging is assumed to be caused by particle transport and an existing single collector efficiency model is implemented to describe this behaviour. The flow model was validated against HSSF TW survey results obtained from the literature. The model successfully simulated the influence of overland flow on hydrodynamics, and the interaction between vertical flow through the low permeability surface layer and the horizontal flow of the saturated water table. The clogging model described the development of clogging within the system but under-predicted the extent of clogging which occurred over 15 years. This is because important clogging mechanisms were not considered by the model, such as biomass growth and vegetation establishment. The model showed the usefulness of FEA for linking hydraulic and clogging phenomenon in HSSF TWs and could be extended to include treatment processes. © 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

Preeclampsia : an accelerator–brake defect disorder

Life's perfect partnership starts with the placenta. If we get this right, we have the best chance of healthy life. In preeclampsia, we have a failing placenta. Preeclampsia kills one pregnant woman every minute and the life expectancy of those who survive is greatly reduced. Preeclampsia is treated roughly the same way it was when Thomas Edison was making the first silent movie. Globally, millions of women risk death to give birth each year and almost 300,000 lose their lives in this process. Over half a million babies around the world die each year as a consequence of preeclampsia. Despite decades of research, we lack pharmacological agents to treat it. Maternal endothelial dysfunction is a central phenomenon responsible for the clinical signs of preeclampsia. In the late nineties, we discovered that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) stimulated nitric oxide release. This led us to suggest that preeclampsia arises due to the loss of VEGF activity, possibly due to a rise in soluble Flt-1 (sFlt-1), the natural antagonist of VEGF. Researchers have shown that high sFlt-1 elicits preeclampsia-like signs in pregnant rats and sFlt-1 increases before the clinical signs of preeclampsia in pregnant women. We demonstrated that removing or reducing this culprit protein from preeclamptic placenta restored the angiogenic balance. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1 or Hmox1) that generates carbon monoxide (CO), biliverdin (rapidly converted to bilirubin) and iron is cytoprotective. We showed that the Hmox1/CO pathway prevents human placental injury caused by pro-inflammatory cytokines and suppresses sFlt-1 and soluble endoglin release, factors responsible for preeclampsia phenotypes. The other key enzyme we identified is the hydrogen sulfide generating cystathionine-gamma-lyase (CSE or Cth). These are the only two enzyme systems shown to suppress sFlt-1 and to act as protective pathways against preeclampsia phenotypes in animal models. We also showed that when hydrogen sulfide restores placental vasculature, it also improves lagging fetal growth. These molecules act as the inhibitor systems in pregnancy and when they fail, this triggers preeclampsia. Discovering that statins induce these enzymes led us to an RCT to develop a low-cost therapy (StAmP Trial) to prevent or treat preeclampsia. If you think of pregnancy as a car then preeclampsia is an accelerator–brake defect disorder. Inflammation, oxidative stress and an imbalance in the angiogenic milieu fuel the ‘accelerator’. It is the failure in the braking systems (the endogenous protective pathway) that results in the ‘accelerator’ going out of control until the system crashes, manifesting itself as preeclampsia.