The application of physiological observation methods to emotion research

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to examine consumer emotions and the social science and observation measures that can be utilised to capture the emotional experiences of consumers. The paper is not setting out to solve the theoretical debate surrounding emotion research, rather to provide an assessment of methodological options available to researchers to aid their investigation into both the structure and content of the consumer emotional experience, acknowledging both the conscious and subconscious elements of that experience. Design/methodology/approach - A review of a wide range of prior research from the fields of marketing, consumer behaviour, psychology and neuroscience are examined to identify the different observation methods available to marketing researchers in the study of consumer emotion. This review also considers the self report measures available to researchers and identifies the main theoretical debates concerning emotion to provide a comprehensive overview of the issues surrounding the capture of emotional responses in a marketing context and to highlight the benefits that observation methods offer this area of research. Findings - This paper evaluates three observation methods and four widely used self report measures of emotion used in a marketing context. Whilst it is recognised that marketers have shown preference for the use of self report measures in prior research, mainly due to ease of implementation, it is posited that the benefits of observation methodology and the wealth of data that can be obtained using such methods can compliment prior research. In addition, the use of observation methods cannot only enhance our understanding of the consumer emotion experience but also enable us to collaborate with researchers from other fields in order to make progress in understanding emotion. Originality/value - This paper brings perspectives and methods together to provide an up to date consideration of emotion research for marketers. In order to generate valuable research in this area there is an identified need for discussion and implementation of the observation techniques available to marketing researchers working in this field. An evaluation of a variety of methods is undertaken as a point to start discussion or consideration of different observation techniques and how they can be utilised.

Physiological and pathological human ocular perfusion characteristics

There were three principle aims to this thesis. Firstly, the acquisition protocols of clinical blood flow apparatus were investigated in order to optimise them for both cross-sectional and longitudinal application. Secondly, the effects of physiological factors including age and systematic circulation on ocular blood flow were investigated. Finally, the ocular perfusion characteristics of patients diagnosed with ocular diseases considered to be of a vascular origin were investigated. The principle findings of this work are:- 1) Optimisation of clinical investigationsPhotodiode sensitivity of the scanning laser Doppler flowmeter should be kept within a range of 70-150 DC when acquiring images of the retina and optic nerve head in order to optimise the reproducibility of capillary blood flow measures. Account of the physiological spatial variation in retinal blood flow measures can be made using standard analysis protocols of the scanning laser Doppler flowmeter combined with a local search strategy. Measurements of pulsatile ocular blood flow using the ocular blood flow analyser are reproducible, however this reproducibility can be improved when consecutive intraocular pressure pulses are used to calculate pulsatile ocular blood flow. Spectral analysis of the intraocular pressure pulse-wave is viable and identifies the first four harmonic components of the waveform. 2) Physiological variation in ocular perfusionAge results in a significant reduction in perfusion of the retinal microcirculation, which is not evident in larger vessel beds such as the choroid. Despite known asymmetry in the systemic vasculature, no evidence of interocular asymmetry in ocular perfusion is apparent. 3) Pathological variation in ocular perfusionIn primary open angle glaucoma, perfusion is reduced in the retinal microcirculation of patients classified as having early to moderate visual field defects. However, ocular pulsatility defects are masked when patients and subjects are matched for systemic variables (pulse rate and mean arterial pressure); differentiation is facilitated by the application of waveform analysis to the continuos intraocular pressure curve even in the early stages of disease. Diabetic patients with adequate glycaemic control, exhibit maintenance of macular blood flow, macular topography and visual function following phacoemulsification.

Evaluation of Melbourne Edge Test contrast sensitivity measures in the visually impaired

Aim: Contrast sensitivity (CS) provides important information on visual function. This study aimed to assess differences in clinical expediency of the CS increment-matched new back-lit and original paper versions of the Melbourne Edge Test (MET) to determine the CS of the visually impaired. Methods: The back-lit and paper MET were administered to 75 visually impaired subjects (28-97 years). Two versions of the back-lit MET acetates were used to match the CS increments with the paper-based MET. Measures of CS were repeated after 30 min and again in the presence of a focal light source directed onto the MET. Visual acuity was measured with a Bailey-Lovie chart and subjects rated how much difficulty they had with face and vehicle recognition. Results: The back-lit MET gave a significantly higher CS than the paper-based version (14.2 ± 4.1 dB vs 11.3 ± 4.3 dB, p < 0.001). A significantly higher reading resulted with repetition of the paper-based MET (by 1.0 ± 1.7 dB, p < 0.001), but this was not evident with the back-lit MET (by 0.1 ± 1.4 dB, p = 0.53). The MET readings were increased by a focal light source, in both the back-lit (by 0.3 ± 0.81, p < 0.01) and paper-based (1.2 ± 1.7, p < 0.001) versions. CS as measured by the back-lit and paper-based versions of the MET was significantly correlated to patients' perceived ability to recognise faces (r = 0.71, r = 0.85 respectively; p < 0.001) and vehicles (r = 0.67, r = 0.82 respectively; p < 0.001), and with distance visual acuity (both r =-0.64; p < 0.001). Conclusions: The CS increment-matched back-lit MET gives higher CS values than the old paper-based test by approximately 3 dB and is more repeatable and less affected by external light sources. Clinically, the MET score provides information on patient difficulties with visual tasks, such as recognising faces. © 2005 The College of Optometrists.