Hard to swallow

The Dept of Health has invited applications from primary care trusts wishing to become pathfinder sites for repeat dispensing schemes. The NHS plan anticipated that a national scheme would be in operation by 2004. Research suggests repeat dispensing is welcomed by patients but does not save large amounts of money. Joint training for all those involved in a scheme is a key issue.

Health inequalities and user involvement?

This chapter examines the theory and practice of user involvement and evaluates its impact on health inequalities in Great Britain. It describes different types of user involvement and highlights the problems in trying to define ‘hard to reach’ groups and the importance of user involvement for such groups. It concludes that user involvement is everyone's business that requires radical shifts in both theory and practice to succeed. It also suggests that creating and promoting greater exchange between those who provide and manage health services and communities and individuals who seek and receive services will create better tailoring of services to demand.

A review of barriers to kerbside recycling household waste in the UK

The aim of this work is to use systematic review methodology to answer the question “What are the current barriers to kerbside recycling of household waste in the UK?” A systematic search of electronic databases and journals was undertaken to identify academic published work. A critical scoping review of research published between 2000 – 2008 profiles theory and research design. The systematic review identified twelve relevant papers, of which seven contain original data. To define the current barriers the explanations of barriers were systematically aggregated into four main categories: household / individual behaviour; services / local situation; attitudes / motivation; information and knowledge. The purpose of the work is to inform future marketing campaigns which will assist the UK to reach the statutory targets of waste diversion. The synthesis will be useful to environmental professionals working in waste authorities and researchers and students. The framework offers an opportunity to develop better marketing and communications strategies to help more people recycle more things more often and will inform future recycling policy development.

Polymer-phospholipid complexes for the solubilisation and delivery of drugs to the eye

Aim: Topical application of ophthalmic drugs is very inefficient; contact lenses used as drug delivery devices could minimize the drug loss and side effects. Styrene-maleic acid copolymers (PSMA) can form polymer-phospholipid complexes with dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DMPC) in the form of nanometric vesicles, which can easily solubilise hydrophobic drugs. They can be dispersed on very thin contact lens coatings to immobilize the drug on their surface. Methods: Two types of complexes stable at different pH values (5 and 7 respectively) where synthesized and loaded with drugs of different hydrophilicities during their formation process. The drug release was studied in vitro and compared to the free drug. Results: The mean sizes of the complexes obtained by light scattering were 50 nm and 450 nm respectively with low polydispersities. However, they were affected by the drugs load and release. An increase was observed in the duration of the release in the case of hydrophobic drugs, from days to weeks, avoiding initial “burst” and with a lesser amount of total drug released due to the interaction of the drug with the phospholipid core. The size and charge of the different drugs and the complexes nature also affected the release profile. Conclusions: Polymer-phospholipid complexes in the form of nanoparticles can be used to solubilise and release hydrophobic drugs in a controlled way. The drug load and release can be optimised to reach therapeutic values in the eye.

Hierarchical case-based reasoning to support knitwear design

Knitwear design is a creative activity that is hard to automate using the computer. The production of the associated knitting pattern, however, is repetitive, time-consuming and error-prone, calling for automation. Our objectives are two-fold: to facilitate the design and to ease the burden of calculations and checks in pattern production. We conduct a feasibility study for applying case-based reasoning in knitwear design: we describe appropriate methods and show their application.

Disentangle contextual and permanent individual motivations:an application to shopping behavior

Past studies resulted in conflicting definitions of consumer motivation. On the one hand, motivations are seen as the consumer’s characteristics that shape her general behavior (motivational trait). On the other hand, they are seen as contextual variables representing the reason why the individual is behaving specific to today’s context (motivational state). The objective of this research is to stress the difference between these two concepts and to understand the impact of each on consumer behavior. We applied our empirical study to shopping motivations; our results show a strong interaction between motivational trait and motivational state. Problem and Hypothesis On the one hand, Westbrook and Black (1985) consider shopping motivations as individual permanent characteristics. This concept is shared by other researchers (Rohm and Swaminathan 2004), which show that some shoppers are functional (they shop for convenience, information seeking, and time saving) while some others are hedonic (they shop for social interaction, bargain hunting and browsing). On the other hand, Kaltcheva and Weitz (2006) define motivations as a contextual orientation changing over time, depending on the situation, and show that contextual shopping motivations have a strong impact on shopping behavior. From our knowledge, no research specifically examined the respective impact of both these shopping motivation types. To deal with this issue, we used the notions of “traits” and “states” that have been largely used in marketing research to designate respectively a permanent characteristic of the individual and a temporary orientation of the consumer (Mowen 2000). The reversal theory (Apter 2001) suggests that two opposite states exist: the telic and the paratelic states. In the telic state, individuals set goals for themselves, must be disciplined to reach these goals, and do not behave in accordance with their personal trait. In the paratelic state, individuals are seeking arousal and enjoyment, do not set rules, and one could postulate that they act in accordance with their natural tendencies. Based on these considerations, we hypothesize the following process: in situations involving paratelic states, hedonic as well as functional individuals should behave according to their natural traits, whereas in situations involving telic states, hedonic people should inhibit their natural propensity to enjoy shopping and behave similarly to functional people. Hence, we postulate the following: Hypothesis: Compared to shoppers with functional motivational trait, shoppers with hedonic motivational trait will a) significantly display more hedonic shopping behavior intentions in a condition of paratelic motivational state, and b) not display more hedonic shopping behavior intentions in a condition a telic motivational state Empirical Research First, 108 participants were asked to fill a multi-items scale about their shopping habits, which actually measured their shopping motivational traits. This questionnaire allowed us to highlight four different dimensions in shopping motivational traits: social interaction, novelty/utility seeking, bargain hunting, and browsing. According to their scores on different items, participants were classified as functional or as hedonic on each of these four dimensions (a single individual may be hedonic on some dimensions and functional on others). Then, participants were then induced to adopt either a telic or a paratelic shopping motivational state while reading an appropriate scenario. Finally, participants were asked for their shopping behavior intentions in response to the shopping context. Four items were developed, corresponding to the four shopping motivational trait dimensions we found with our factor analysis. Results As we found four dimensions in shopping motivational trait, we set up four quasi-experimental designs to capture the entire phenomenon: for each dimension, a 2 (motivational trait) x 2 (motivational state) design was built, where the dependant variable was the shopping behavior element corresponding to the studied dimension. Four 2 x 2 Anovas were performed to assess the interaction between motivational trait and motivational state. Concerning the three dimensions - browsing, novelty/utility seeking, and bargain hunting- , in the paratelic state scenario participants with hedonic motivational trait displayed significantly more hedonic shopping behavior intentions than participants with a functional motivational trait (resp. F = 9.701, p = .003; F = 4.979, p = .03; F = 5.757, p = .02); and in the telic state scenario, there was no significant difference in behavior intentions between participants with hedonic or functional motivation trait. Each time, the interaction effect between motivational state and motivational trait was significant (resp. F = 4.859, p = .03; F = 3.314, p = .07; F = 2.98, p = .08). Concerning the fourth dimension, social interaction, shopping behavior intentions of participants with hedonic and with functional motivational traits were significantly different in the paratelic state scenario (F = 29.898, p <.000) as well as in the telic state scenario (F = 9.559, p = .003). However, the interaction effect showed that this behavioral difference was significantly stronger in the paratelic scenario. All these results support our research hypothesis. Discussion and Implications Our study provides consistent support for our hypotheses saying that there is an interaction effect between shopping motivational states and shopping motivational traits. The generalization of the results is strengthened by the study of four different shopping traits: social interaction, novelty/utility seeking, bargain hunting and browsing. As we proposed, when shopping in a goal-oriented state (telic state), behaviors of hedonic and functional shoppers do not differ significantly. Conversely, when shopping for a recreational reason (paratelic state), hedonic and functional shoppers behave significantly different. These results could explain why some previous studies concluded that shopping motivational traits had no impact on shopping behavior: they did not take into consideration the interaction between motivational trait and motivational state. Moreover, our study shows that marketing surveys performed by store managers to draw the personal profile of their customers must be crossed with contextual motivations in order to accurately forecast shopper behavior. Future Developments Our results can be explained by the self-control process, which pushes hedonic-trait shoppers to behave in a rather functional way in utilitarian situations. However, to be certain that this is the very process that occurs, we plan to add self-control perception scales to our existing measures. This is obviously the next step of this research.

To cut a long story short:an analysis of formulaic sequences in short written narratives and their potential as markers of authorship

Previous research into formulaic language has focussed on specialised groups of people (e.g. L1 acquisition by infants and adult L2 acquisition) with ordinary adult native speakers of English receiving less attention. Additionally, whilst some features of formulaic language have been used as evidence of authorship (e.g. the Unabomber’s use of you can’t eat your cake and have it too) there has been no systematic investigation into this as a potential marker of authorship. This thesis reports the first full-scale study into the use of formulaic sequences by individual authors. The theory of formulaic language hypothesises that formulaic sequences contained in the mental lexicon are shaped by experience combined with what each individual has found to be communicatively effective. Each author’s repertoire of formulaic sequences should therefore differ. To test this assertion, three automated approaches to the identification of formulaic sequences are tested on a specially constructed corpus containing 100 short narratives. The first approach explores a limited subset of formulaic sequences using recurrence across a series of texts as the criterion for identification. The second approach focuses on a word which frequently occurs as part of formulaic sequences and also investigates alternative non-formulaic realisations of the same semantic content. Finally, a reference list approach is used. Whilst claiming authority for any reference list can be difficult, the proposed method utilises internet examples derived from lists prepared by others, a procedure which, it is argued, is akin to asking large groups of judges to reach consensus about what is formulaic. The empirical evidence supports the notion that formulaic sequences have potential as a marker of authorship since in some cases a Questioned Document was correctly attributed. Although this marker of authorship is not universally applicable, it does promise to become a viable new tool in the forensic linguist’s tool-kit.

Ultraviolet damage to the eye revisited:eye-sun protection factor (E-SPF®), a new ultraviolet protection label for eyewear

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation potentially damages the skin, the immune system, and structures of the eye. A useful UV sun protection for the skin has been established. Since a remarkable body of evidence shows an association between UV radiation and damage to structures of the eye, eye protection is important, but a reliable and practical tool to assess and compare the UV-protective properties of lenses has been lacking. Among the general lay public, misconceptions on eye-sun protection have been identified. For example, sun protection is mainly ascribed to sunglasses, but less so to clear lenses. Skin malignancies in the periorbital region are frequent, but usual topical skin protection does not include the lids. Recent research utilized exact dosimetry and demonstrated relevant differences in UV burden to the eye and skin at a given ambient irradiation. Chronic UV effects on the cornea and lens are cumulative, so effective UV protection of the eyes is important for all age groups and should be used systematically. Protection of children's eyes is especially important, because UV transmittance is higher at a very young age, allowing higher levels of UV radiation to reach the crystalline lens and even the retina. Sunglasses as well as clear lenses (plano and prescription) effectively reduce transmittance of UV radiation. However, an important share of the UV burden to the eye is explained by back reflection of radiation from lenses to the eye. UV radiation incident from an angle of 135°-150° behind a lens wearer is reflected from the back side of lenses. The usual antireflective coatings considerably increase reflection of UV radiation. To provide reliable labeling of the protective potential of lenses, an eye-sun protection factor (E-SPF®) has been developed. It integrates UV transmission as well as UV reflectance of lenses. The E-SPF® compares well with established skin-sun protection factors and provides clear messages to eye health care providers and to lay consumers. © 2014 Behar-Cohen et al, This work is published by Dove Medical Press Ltd.

Vulnerability of exporting nations to the development of a carbon label in the United Kingdom

Carbon labels inform consumers about the amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) released during the production and consumption of goods, including food. In the future consumer and legislative responses to carbon labels may favour goods with lower emissions, and thereby change established supply chains. This may have unintended consequences. We present the carbon footprint of three horticultural goods of different origins supplied to the United Kingdom market: lettuce, broccoli and green beans. Analysis of these footprints enables the characterisation of three different classes of vulnerability which are related to: transport, national economy and supply chain specifics. There is no simple relationship between the characteristics of an exporting country and its vulnerability to the introduction of a carbon label. Geographically distant developing countries with a high level of substitutable exports to the UK are most vulnerable. However, many developing countries have low vulnerability as their main exports are tropical crops which would be hard to substitute with local produce. In the short term it is unlikely that consumers will respond to carbon labels in such a way that will have major impacts in the horticultural sector. Labels which require contractual reductions in GHG emissions may have greater impacts in the short term.

The analysis of potentiostatic transients applied to the corrosion of steel in concrete

Potentiostatically induced current transients obtained on a range of reinforced concrete specimens were analysed to give estimates of the polarisation resistance and interfacial capacitance. The polarisation resistance was compared with the values obtained using more conventional DC methods of analysis and, while it was consistently lower, it was within the error normally attributed to the polarisation resistance method of corrosion rate determination. The interfacial capacitance values determined increased from 0.44 F m -2 for passive steel (polarisation resistance of 132 Ω m 2) to 26.5 F m -2 for active steel (polarisation resistance of 0.34 Ω m 2). This has a dominant effect on the time required for potentiostatically induced current transients to reach a steady state with a longer time being required by actively corroding steel. By contrast the potential decay time constants describing galvanostatically or coulostatically induced potential transients decrease with an increase in corrosion rate and values less than 25 s for active specimens and greater than 40 s for passive specimens were determined in this work. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Binocular summation, binocular fusion and the transition to diplopia

The visual system combines spatial signals from the two eyes to achieve single vision. But if binocular disparity is too large, this perceptual fusion gives way to diplopia. We studied and modelled the processes underlying fusion and the transition to diplopia. The likely basis for fusion is linear summation of inputs onto binocular cortical cells. Previous studies of perceived position, contrast matching and contrast discrimination imply the computation of a dynamicallyweighted sum, where the weights vary with relative contrast. For gratings, perceived contrast was almost constant across all disparities, and this can be modelled by allowing the ocular weights to increase with disparity (Zhou, Georgeson & Hess, 2014). However, when a single Gaussian-blurred edge was shown to each eye perceived blur was invariant with disparity (Georgeson & Wallis, ECVP 2012) – not consistent with linear summation (which predicts that perceived blur increases with disparity). This blur constancy is consistent with a multiplicative form of combination (the contrast-weighted geometric mean) but that is hard to reconcile with the evidence favouring linear combination. We describe a 2-stage spatial filtering model with linear binocular combination and suggest that nonlinear output transduction (eg. ‘half-squaring’) at each stage may account for the blur constancy.