Diagenesis and aquifer characteristics of the Sherwood Sandstone Group in North Nottinghamshire

The Sherwood Sandstone Group forms an important aquifer in Eastern England, which in North Nottinghamshire comprises the Nottingham Castle and Lenton Sandstone Formations. The aquifer is formed by an alluvial red-bed sequence dominated by medium-coarse grained sandstones which are texturally immature to submature and have only been subjected to shallow burial diagenesis. These sandstones reached the mature stage of the meso diagenetic regime, and four stages are recognized in their diagenetic history depending upon the physical/chemical processes prevailing and the subsequent effect on porosity and permeability. Stage "One" represents changes including dissolution of unstable silicates, clay replacement, red colouration and precipitation of authigenic minerals (quartz, feldspar, illite, l/S, kaolinite, dolomite, ferroan calcite, calcite). The net result of these changes was porosity reduction. Stage "Two" included changes due to mechanical compaction which resulted in minor porosity reduction. Stage "Three" was the main phase of secondary porosity enhancement. Stage "Four" represents changes taking place in the present groundwater where porosity and permeability may have been increased by dissolution and partly reduced by kaolinite precipitation. Porosity measured by water-resaturation and Hg-injection gave average values of 25.63% and 24.85% respectively. The results are comparable and showed marked correlation especially in highly porous/permeable rocks. Porosity measurements from photomicrographs were markedly offset from laboratory results. Horizontal Kw ranged between 1.43 x 10-5 and 1.13 x 10-1 mm/sec, with an average of  1.68 x 10-2 mm/sec. The estimated KHg ranged between 7.29 x 10-6 and 6.99 x 10-2 mm/sec with an average of 1.47 x 10-2 mm/sec. Both results are significantly correlated for highly porous/permeable rocks. The hydraulic properties are highly dependent upon the diagenetic properties (as most of the pores present are of secondary origin) as well as the pore size distribution. The chemistry of these groundwaters indicates that they are under-saturated with respect to dolomite, calcite, K-feldspar, l/S clay, and montmorillonite. The precipitation of kaolinite,and to a lesser extent illite, is favoured in the present groundwater regime.

Groundwater flow patterns within the Triassic sandstone aquifers, Birmingham, United Kingdom

This paper presents the development of a modelling study for part of the Birmingham area. Restricted access and model resolutions have limited wide applications of some of the previously developed models. The study area covers approximately 221 km2, and is underlain geologically, by a multi-layer setup with varied hydraulic properties. The basal aquifer unit is the Kidderminster sandstone Formation, overlain by the Wildmoor and Bromsgrove sandstone Formations. The presence of the Birmingham fault which acts as low permeability barrier demarcates the eastern and southern boundaries. The western boundary is defined by the presence of crystallised rocks and coal measures, while a groundwater divide defines the northern boundary. The estimated recharge flux is 112 mm/yr. The ranges of calibrated values obtained for horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivities are 5.787x10-6 - 2.315x10-5  m/s and 5.787x10-8  - 1.157x10-7  m/s, respectively. Corresponding values obtained for the specific yield and specific storage are 0.10 - 0.12, and 1x10 -4 - 5x10 -4. The calculated numerical error is generally much less than 0.1 %. Hydraulic layering within the Permo-Triassic sandstone aquifer is thought to account for the large vertical anisotropy. Although, uncertainties are associated with the use of a simplistic delay approach to characterise the effects of the unsaturated zone, the modelled values are comparable with those obtained in the literature, and the flow pattern predictions appear to be realistic. © Research India Publications.

The Effect of low-grade aggregates on the abrasion resistance of concrete

Three types of crushed rock aggregate were appraised, these being Carboniferous Sandstone, Magnesian Limestone and Jurassic Limestone. A comprehensive aggregate testing programme assessed the properties of these materials. Two series of specimen slabs were cast and power finished using recognised site procedures to assess firstly the influence of these aggregates as the coarse fraction, and secondly as the fine fraction. Each specimen slab was tested at 28 days under three regimes to simulate 2-body abrasion, 3-body abrasion and the effect of water on the abrasion of concrete. The abrasion resistance was measured using a recognised accelerated abrasion testing apparatus employing rotating steel wheels. Relationships between the aggregate and concrete properties and the abrasion resistance have been developed with the following properties being particularly important - Los Angeles Abrasion and grading of the coarse aggregate, hardness of the fine aggregate and water-cement ratio of the concrete. The sole use of cube strength as a measure of abrasion resistance has been shown to be unreliable by this work. A graphical method for predicting the potential abrasion resistance of concrete using various aggregate and concrete properties has been proposed. The effect of varying the proportion of low-grade aggregate in the mix has also been investigated. Possible mechanisms involved during abrasion have been discussed, including localised crushing and failure of the aggregate/paste bond. Aggregates from each of the groups were found to satisfy current specifications for direct finished concrete floors. This work strengthens the case for the increased use of low-grade aggregates in the future.

Phosphorus bearing minerals in iron ores and their possible benefication

Modern electron optical techniques together with X-ray and mineralogical examination have been used to study the occurrence and form of phosphorus bearing minerals in iron ores. Three ores have been studied - Bahariya and Aswan from Egypt and Frodingham ironstone from U.K. The iron in the Bahariya iron ore is mainly as hematite and goethite. The gangue minerals are halite, gypsum, barytes, quartz and calcite. Iron content is between 49.8 to 63.2% and phosphorus 0.14 to 0.34%. The phosphorus occurs as very fine particles of apatite which are distributed throughout the ore. Removal of the phosphorus would require very fine grinding followed by acid leaching. Aswan iron ore is an oolitic iron ore; the iron content between 41-57% and phosphorus content 0.1 to 2.9%. It is mainly hematitic with variable quantities of quartz, apatite and small amount of clay minerals. In the oolitic iron ore beds, apatite occurs in the hematite matrix; filling in the pores of the oolithic surfaces, or as matrix cementing the ooliths with the hematite grains. In sandstone claybeds the distribution of the apatite is mainly in the matrix. It is suggested that the liberation size for the apatite would be -80 m and flotation concentration could be applied for the removal of apatite from Aswan ore. Frodingham ironstone occurs in the lower Jurassic bed of the South Humberside area. The average iron content is 25% and the phosphorus is 0.32%. Seven mineral phases were identified by X-ray; calcite, quartz, chamosite, hematite, siderite, apatite, and chlorite. Apatite occurs as very fine grains in the hematite and chamosite ooliths; as matrix of fine grains intergrown with chamosite and calcite grains; and as anhedral and sub rounded grains in the ooliths (8-28 m). It is suggested that two processes are possible for the dephosphorisation; the Flox process or a reduction roast followed by fine grinding, magnetic separation, and acid leaching.

Triassic stratigraphy and sedimentology in central England

The Triassic rocks of Central England consist of three major stratigraphic units: Sherwood Sandstone Group, Mercia Mudstone Group, and Penarth Group. The lower part of the Sherwood Sandstone Group represented by the Kidderminster, Cannock Chase, and Polesworth Formations represents pebbly braided river deposits carried by a major fluvial system flowing to the North-Northwest. The upper part of the Sherwood Sandstone Group includes the Wildmoor and Bromsgrove Sandstone Formations, the deposits of a sandy alluvial system. The Mercia Mudstone Group represents quiet-water deposits of marginal palya type which were subjected to occasional marine flooding. The overlying Penarth Group represent shallow marine and lagoonal environment associated with the Rhaetian marine transgression. The mineralogy of the Triassic sandstones indicates that the main source was from medium to low rank metamorphic rocks with additional supplies from igneous and metamorphic rocks. The study of size-composition trends shows that the climate was semiarid in early Triassic time and became more humid later. The Triassic sandstones show a variety of diagenetic features typical of continental red beds; these include: 1. the dissolution of unstable ferromagnesian silicates, 2. the replacement of detrital grains by clay, 3. the pseudomorphism of biotite by haematite, and 4. the formation of a suite of authigenic minerals including quartz, illite, mixed-layer illite-montmorillonite, kaolinite, k-feldspar, haematite, titanium oxide and later carbonate cement. Palaeomagnetic studies of selected samples show that the magnetization is muticomponent with the various components being carried by different textural phases of haematite.

The sedimentology and diagenesis of Lower Permian (Rotliegend) sediments: (onshore U.K. and southern North Sea). Available in 2 volumes.

The thesis provides a comparative study of both sedimentology and diagenesis of Lower Permian (Rotliegend) strata, onshore and offshore U.K. (Southern North Sea). Onshore formations studied include the Bridgnorth, Penrith and Hopeman Sandstone, and are dominated by aeolian facies, with lesser amounts of interbedded fluvial sediments. Aeolian and fluvial strata in onshore basins typically grade laterally into alluvial fan breccias at basin margins. Onshore basins represent proximal examples of Rotliegend desert sediments. The Leman Sandstone Formation of the Ravenspurn area in the Southern North Sea displays a variety of facies indicative of a distal sedimentological setting; Aeolian, fluvial, sabkha, and playa lake sediments all being present. "Sheet-like" geometry of stratigraphical units within the Leman Sandstone, and alternation of fluvial and aeolian deposition was climatically controlled. Major first order bounding surfaces are laterally extensive and were produced by lacustrine transgression and regression from the north-west. Diagenesis within Permian strata was studied using standard petrographic microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, cold cathodo-Iuminescence, X-ray diffraction clay analysis, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, fluid inclusion microthermometry, and K-Ar dating of illites. The diagenesis of Permian sediments within onshore basins is remarkably similar, and a paragenetic sequence of early haematite, illitic clays, feldspar, kaolinite, quartz and late calcite is observed. In the Leman Sandstone formation, authigenic mineralogy is complex and includes early quartz, sulphates and dolomite, chlorite, kaolinite, late quartz, illite and siderite. Primary lithological variation, facies type, and the interdigitation and location of facies within a basin are important initial controls upon diagenesis. Subsequently, burial history, structure, the timing of gas emplacement, and the nature of sediments within underlying formations may also exersize significant controls upon diagenesis within Rotliegend strata.