Internal versus external R&D:a study of R&D choice with sample selection

This paper extends previous analyses of the choice between internal and external R&D to consider the costs of internal R&D. The Heckman two-stage estimator is used to estimate the determinants of internal R&D unit cost (i.e. cost per product innovation) allowing for sample selection effects. Theory indicates that R&D unit cost will be influenced by scale issues and by the technological opportunities faced by the firm. Transaction costs encountered in research activities are allowed for and, in addition, consideration is given to issues of market structure which influence the choice of R&D mode without affecting the unit cost of internal or external R&D. The model is tested on data from a sample of over 500 UK manufacturing plants which have engaged in product innovation. The key determinants of R&D mode are the scale of plant and R&D input, and market structure conditions. In terms of the R&D cost equation, scale factors are again important and have a non-linear relationship with R&D unit cost. Specificities in physical and human capital also affect unit cost, but have no clear impact on the choice of R&D mode. There is no evidence of technological opportunity affecting either R&D cost or the internal/external decision.

From national innovation systems to national innovation capacity:internationalisation and technology transfer perspectives

The last decade or so has witnessed the emergence of the national innovation system (NIS) phenomenon. Since then, many scholars have investigated NIS and its implementation in different countries. However, there are very few investigations into the relationship between the NIS of a country and its national innovation capacity. This paper aims to make a contribution in this area by examining the link that currently exists between these two topics. Whilst examining this relationship, we also explore internationalisation and technology transfer, being cognate areas that have been investigated during the same period. This follows our assertion that the link between NIS and national innovation capacity is the mechanism of internationalisation and technology transfer. The NIS approach was introduced in the late 1980s (see Freeman, 1987; Dosi et al., 1988) and further elaborated later (see Lundvall, 1992; Nelson, 1993; Edquist, 1997). In essence, a country?s NIS is a historically grown subsystem of the entire national economy consisting of organisations and institutions which play a major role in the innovative activity in the country. In the NIS approach, interactions within organisations as well as the interplay between organisations and institutions are of central importance. The NIS approach has been used to reveal the structure of the innovation processes and the main actors involved in them in industrialised and emerging countries. Although the national focus remains strong, it has been accompanied by studies seeking to analyse the notion of systems of innovation at an international level and at a sub-national scale (Archibugi et al., 1999). Dosi in the edition of Archibugi et al. (1999) argues that the general background of the discussion of national systems is the observation of non-random distributions across countries of: corporate capabilities; organisational forms; strategies; and ultimately revealed performances, in terms of production efficiency and inputs productivities, rates of innovation, rates of adoption/diffusion of innovation themselves, dynamics of market shares on the world markets, growth of income and employment. They also mention that there are several approaches to NIS. Nelson (1993) focuses upon the specificities of national institutions and policies supporting directly or indirectly innovation, diffusion and skills accumulation. Patel and Pavitt (1991) have stressed the links between the national patterns of technological accumulation and the competencies and innovative strategies of a few major national companies. Amable et al (1997) and Soskice (1993) and Zysman (1994) focus on the specifics of national institutions including, for example, the forms of organization, financial and labour markets, training institutions, forms of state intervention in the economy etc. However, the most common reference is by Lundvall (1992) who argues that the focus on the national level is associated with the fact that national economies vary according to their production system and their institutional framework and these differences are in turn strengthened by different historical experiences, language and culture. On the other hand, the national innovation capability consists of abilities to create and carry new technological possibilities through to economic practice. The term covers a wide range of activities from capability to invent to capability to innovate and to capability to improve existing technology beyond the original design parameters (Kim, 1997). The term innovation is often associated by many with technological change at international frontiers. However, technological capability is not the same as innovation capability. Technological capability refers to assimilation, use, adaptation, and change to existing technologies. It also enables the creation of new technologies and development of new products and processes in response to changing economic environments. It denotes operational command over knowledge (Kim, 1997). It is manifested not merely by the knowledge possessed, but, more important, by the uses to which that knowledge can be put and by the proficiency with which it is applied in the activities of investment and production and in the creation of new knowledge (Westphal et al., 1985). Therefore, the analytical framework that is used in this paper is based on the way a country derives from its NIS a national innovation capacity. There are two perspectives that are identified on this way. These are internationalisation and technology transfer. Even though NIS is not directly related to national innovation capacity, to achieve national innovation capacity from NIS, the country should have the ability for technology transfer. Technology transfer is a link between these two phenomena. On the other hand, internationalisation can be either the input or the output of the relationship between NIS and national innovation capability. If a company is investing in a country because of its national innovation capacity, this can be regarded as an input to the relationship between NIS and national innovation capacity. If this company is investigating the national innovation capacity of a country then, for its internationalisation, the national innovation capacity should be important, which in turn means this company is active in innovation and innovation is also an important success factor. The interrelationship between the investment of the company and the NIS of the country (assuming that the country is competent and competitive in technology transfer) will generate and improve that country?s national innovation capacity. This is the output of internationalisation from the relationship between NIS and national innovation capacity. When companies are evaluating whether to internationalise, they investigate certain factors in the countries in which they are considering to invest. The ability to transfer technology is dependent on ability to adopt a new technology and also on the learning derived from this technology. If countries wish to attract innovation related investment they need to show their ability to have a NIS and also the capability to transfer technology. Without the technology transfer capability, the NIS is not functioning. Therefore, companies that internationalise will investigate the factors common to NIS, technology transfer, and their business needs. Through this paper we will demonstrate this link though its mechanisms. Our research will be through extensive literature review and identifying relevant aspects of previous research carried out by the authors. It will investigate certain factors of different countries that are successful in attracting innovation related foreign direct investment. Through these, we will point out the factors that are important for the link and mechanisms of NIS and national innovation capability.

Pregnancy loss in lesbian and bisexual women: An online survey of experiences

Background: Although pregnancy loss is a distressing health event for many women, research typically equates women’s experiences of pregnancy loss to ‘married heterosexual women’s experiences of pregnancy loss’. The objective of this study was to explore lesbian and bisexual women’s experiences of miscarriage, stillbirth and neonatal death. Methods: This study analysed predominantly qualitative online survey data from 60 non-heterosexual, mostly lesbian, women from the UK, USA, Canada and Australia. All but one of the pregnancies was planned. Most respondents had physically experienced one early miscarriage during their first pregnancy, although a third had experienced multiple losses. Results: The analysis highlights three themes: processes and practices for conception; amplification of loss; and health care and heterosexism. Of the respondents, 84% conceived using donor sperm; most used various resources to plan conception and engaged in preconception health care. The experience of loss was amplified due to contextual factors and the investment respondents reported making in impending motherhood. Most felt that their loss(es) had made a ‘significant’/‘very significant’ impact on their lives. Many respondents experienced health care during their loss. Although the majority rated the overall standard of care as ‘good’/‘very good’/‘outstanding’, a minority reported experiencing heterosexism from health professionals. Conclusions: The implications for policy and practice are outlined. The main limitation was that the inflexibility of the methodology did not allow the specificities of women’s experiences to be probed further. It is suggested that both coupled and single non-heterosexual women should be made more visible in reproductive health and pregnancy loss research.

A study of potential serum markers for a diagnosis of gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial sepsis

Sepsis continues to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality as it can readily lead tosevere sepsis, septic shock, multiple organ failure and death. The onset can be rapid and difficult to define clinically. Despite the numerous candidate markers proposed in the literature, to date a serum marker for sepsis has not been found. The aim of this study was to assay the serum of clinically diagnosed patients with eithera Gram-negative or Gram- positive bacterial sepsis for elevated levels of nine potentialmarkers of sepsis, using commercially produced enzyme linked immunosorbent assays(ELISA). The purpose was to find a test marker for sepsis that would be helpful toclinicians in cases of uncertain sepsis and consequently expose false positive BC'scaused by skin or environmental contaminants. Nine test markers were assayed including IL-6, IL-I 0, ILI2, TNF-α, lipopolysaccharide binding protein, procalcitonin, sE-selectin, sICAM -1 and a potential differential marker for Gram-positive sepsis- anti-lipid S antibody. A total of 445 patients were enrolled into this study from the Queen Elizabeth Hospital and Selly Oak Hospital (Birmingham). The results showed that all the markers were elevated in patients with sepsis and that patients with a Gram-negative sepsis consistently produced higher median/range serum levels than those with a Gram-positive sepsis. No single marker was able to identify all the septic patients. Combining two markers caused the sensitivities and specificities for a diagnosis of sepsis to increase to within a 90% to 100% range. By a process of elimination the markers that survived into the last phase were IL-6 with sICAM -1, and anti-lipid S IgG assays Defining cut-off levels for a diagnosis of sepsis became problematic and a semi-blind trial was devised to test the markers in the absence of both clinical details and positive blood cultures. Patients with pyrexia of unknown origin and negative BC were included in this phase (4). The results showed that IL-6 with sICAM-l are authentic markers of sepsis. There was 82% agreement between the test marker diagnosis and the clinical diagnosis for sepsis in patients with a Gram-positive BC and 78% agreement in cases of Gram-negative Be. In the PUO group the test markers identified 12 cases of sepsis and the clinical diagnosis 15. The markers were shown to differentiate between early sepsis and sepsis, inflammatory responses and infection. Anti-lipid S with IL-6 proved be a sensitive marker for Gram-positive infections/sepsis.

German-Irish corporate relationships:the cultural dimension

The thesis raises the question of whether or not in an age of internationalisation and globalisation, the cultural differences which exist between Germany and Ireland are still relevant to German-Irish corporate relationships or have internationally accepted best practices removed culture from the equation? The first three chapters establish the theoretical framework of the thesis by outlining the broadly culturalist/institutionalist approach, based on the work of Hofstede and Maurice et al, to be pursued, profiling the business cultures of both countries by analysing the components of their respective national institutional frameworks, and the examining existing approaches to the study of mother company-foreign subsidiary relationships. Chapters four to seven constitute the empirical section of the thesis. Using the interviews carried out with two sample groups (Sample Group A: 15 German mother companies and 14 of their Irish operations and Sample Group B: 7 Irish mother companies and 9 of their German operations), the mother companies in both groups are examined to see whether or not they demonstrate characteristics which are in keeping with their national business cultures. Their foreign operations are then analysed as is the mother company-foreign subsidiary relationship to determine whether or not any mother company influences are visible. The general approaches adopted by the two groups of mother companies to their foreign operations are compared and contrasted. Finally, differences in national attitudes and values are identified and their impact assessed. The analysis reveals that despite existing pressures towards convergence, the cultural differences between both countries are still relevant to the relationship particularly at the level of attitudes and values and although similarities in the mother company approaches to their subsidiaries are present, national specificities may nevertheless be detected.

Indigenous and foreign innovation efforts and drivers of technological upgrading:evidence from China

This paper explores the role of indigenous and foreign innovation efforts in technological upgrading in developing countries, taking into account sectoral specificities in technical change. Using a Chinese firm-level panel dataset covering 2001–05, the paper decomposes productivity growth into technical change and efficiency improvement and examines the impact of indigenous and foreign innovation efforts on these changes. Indigenous firms are found to be the leading force on the technological frontier in the low- and medium-technology industries, while foreign-invested firms enjoy a clear lead in the high-technology sector. Collective indigenous R&D activities at the industry level are found to be the major driver of technology upgrading of indigenous firms that push out the technology frontier. While foreign investment appears to contribute to static industry capabilities, R&D activities of foreign-invested firms have exerted a significant negative effect on the technical change of local firms over the sample period.

ICT and internet use at the household levels:a melting pot of sub-optimum decision making in the case of E-Grocery shopping

Research shows that consumers are readily embracing the Internet to buy products. This paper proposes that, in the case of grocery shopping, this may lead to sub-optimal decisions at the household level. Decisions online on what, where and from who to buy are normally taken by one individual. In the case of grocery shopping, decisions, however, need to be ‘vetted’ by ‘other’ individuals within the household. The ‘household wide related’ decisions influence how information technologies and systems for commerce should be designed and managed for optimum decision making. This paper argues, unlike previous research, that e-grocery retailing is failing to grow to its full potential not solely because of the ‘classical’ hazards and perceived risks associated with doing grocery shopping online but because e-grocery retailing strategy has failed to acknowledge the micro-household level specificities that affect decision making. Our exploratory research is based on empirical evidence which were collected through telephone interviews. We offer an insight into how e-grocery ‘fits’ and is ‘disrupted’ by the reality of day to day consumption decision making at the household level. Our main finding is to advocate a more role-neutral, multi-user and multi-technology approach to e-grocery shopping which re-defines the concept of the main shopper/decision maker thereby reconceptualising the ‘shopping logic’ for grocery products.

SGLT inhibitors in management of diabetes

The two main sodium-glucose cotransporters (SGLTs), SGLT1 and SGLT2, provide new therapeutic targets to reduce hyperglycaemia in patients with diabetes. SGLT1 enables the small intestine to absorb glucose and contributes to the reabsorption of glucose filtered by the kidney. SGLT2 is responsible for reabsorption of most of the glucose filtered by the kidney. Inhibitors with varying specificities for these transporters (eg, dapagliflozin, canagliflozin, and empagliflozin) can slow the rate of intestinal glucose absorption and increase the renal elimination of glucose into the urine. Results of randomised clinical trials have shown the blood glucose-lowering efficacy of SGLT inhibitors in type 2 diabetes when administered as monotherapy or in addition to other glucose-lowering therapies including insulin. Increased renal glucose elimination also assists weight loss and could help to reduce blood pressure. Effective SGLT2 inhibition needs adequate glomerular filtration and might increase risk of urinary tract and genital infection, and excessive inhibition of SGLT1 can cause gastro-intestinal symptoms. However, the insulin-independent mechanism of action of SGLT inhibitors seems to offer durable glucose-lowering efficacy with low risk of clinically significant hypoglycaemia at any stage in the natural history of type 2 diabetes. SGLT inhibition might also be considered in conjunction with insulin therapy in type 1 diabetes. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd.

Identifiying human MHC supertypes using bioinformatic methods

Classification of MHC molecules into supertypes in terms of peptide-binding specificities is an important issue, with direct implications for the development of epitope-based vaccines with wide population coverage. In view of extremely high MHC polymorphism (948 class I and 633 class II HLA alleles) the experimental solution of this task is presently impossible. In this study, we describe a bioinformatics strategy for classifying MHC molecules into supertypes using information drawn solely from three-dimensional protein structure. Two chemometric techniques–hierarchical clustering and principal component analysis–were used independently on a set of 783 HLA class I molecules to identify supertypes based on structural similarities and molecular interaction fields calculated for the peptide binding site. Eight supertypes were defined: A2, A3, A24, B7, B27, B44, C1, and C4. The two techniques gave 77% consensus, i.e., 605 HLA class I alleles were classified in the same supertype by both methods. The proposed strategy allowed “supertype fingerprints” to be identified. Thus, the A2 supertype fingerprint is Tyr9/Phe9, Arg97, and His114 or Tyr116; the A3-Tyr9/Phe9/Ser9, Ile97/Met97 and Glu114 or Asp116; the A24-Ser9 and Met97; the B7-Asn63 and Leu81; the B27-Glu63 and Leu81; for B44-Ala81; the C1-Ser77; and the C4-Asn77. action fields calculated for the peptide binding site. Eight supertypes were defined: A2, A3, A24, B7, B27, B44, C1, and C4. The two techniques gave 77% consensus, i.e., 605 HLA class I alleles were classified in the same supertype by both methods. The proposed strategy allowed “supertype fingerprints” to be identified. Thus, the A2 supertype fingerprint is Tyr9/Phe9, Arg97, and His114 or Tyr116; the A3-Tyr9/Phe9/Ser9, Ile97/Met97 and Glu114 or Asp116; the A24-Ser9 and Met97; the B7-Asn63 and Leu81; the B27-Glu63 and Leu81; for B44-Ala81; the C1-Ser77; and the C4-Asn77.