The discretionary role of the line manager in inspiring work engagement and innovative behaviour:a study of social exchange and job resources in the public sector

This thesis is about the discretionary role of the line manager in inspiring the work engagement of staff and their resulting innovative behaviour examined through the lens of Social Exchange Theory (Blau, 1964) and the Job Demands-Resources theory (Bakker, Demerouti, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001). The study is focused on a large British Public Sector organisation undergoing a major organisational shift in the way in which they operate as part of the public sector. It is often claimed that people do not leave organisations; they leave line managers (Kozlowski & Doherty, 1989). Regardless of the knowledge in the literature concerning the importance of the line manager in organisations (Purcell, 2003), the engagement literature in particular is lacking in the consideration of such a fundamental figure in organisational life. Further, the understanding of the black box of managerial discretion and its relationship to employee and organisation related outcomes would benefit from greater exploration (Purcell, 2003; Gerhart, 2005; Scott, et al, 2009). The purpose of this research is to address these gaps with relation to the innovative behaviour of employees in the public sector – an area that is not typically associated with the public sector (Bhatta, 2003; McGuire, Stoner & Mylona, 2008; Hughes, Moore & Kataria, 2011). The study is a CASE Award PhD thesis, requiring academic and practical elements to the research. The study is of one case organisation, focusing on one service characterised by a high level of adoption of Strategic Human Resource Management activities and operating in a rather unique manner for the public sector, having private sector competition for work. The study involved a mixed methods approach to data collection. Preliminary focus groups with 45 participants were conducted, followed by an ethnographic period of five months embedded into the service conducting interviews and observations. This culminated in a quantitative survey delivered within the wider directorate to approximately 500 staff members. The study used aspects of the Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) approach to analyse the data and developed results that highlight the importance of the line manager in an area characterised by SHRM and organisational change for engaging employees and encouraging innovative behaviour. This survey was completed on behalf of the organisation and the findings of this are presented in appendix 1, in order to keep the focus of the PhD on theory development. Implications for theory and practice are discussed alongside the core finding. Line managers’ discretion surrounding the provision of job resources (in particular trust, autonomy and implementation and interpretation of combined bundles of SHRM policies and procedures) influenced the exchange process by which employees responded with work engagement and innovative behaviour. Limitations to the research are the limitations commonly attributed to cross-sectional data collection methods and those surrounding generalisability of the qualitative findings outside of the contextual factors characterising the service area. Suggestions for future research involve addressing these limitations and further exploration of the discretionary role with regards to extending our understanding of line manager discretion.

The role of emotional labour and role stress on burnout and psychological strain in high contact service employees

This study examines the relationships between job demands (in the form of role stressors and emotional management) and employee burnout amongst high contact service employees. Employees in customer facing roles are frequently required to manage overwhelming, conflicting or ambiguous demands, which they may feel ill-equipped to handle. Simultaneously, they must manage the emotions they display towards customers, suppressing some, and expressing others, be they genuine or contrived. If the in-role effort required of employees exceeds their inherent capacity to cope, burnout may result. Burnout, in turn, can have serious detrimental consequences for the psychological well being of employees. We find that both emotional management and role stressors impact burnout. We also confirm that burnout predicts psychological strain. In line with the Job Demands and Resources Model, we examine the mitigating impact of perceived support on these relationships but do not find a significant mitigating impact.

Psychosoziale Merkmale der Arbeit, Überforderungserleben und Depressivität

Die vorliegende Studie untersuchte die im Job-Demand-Control-Support-Modell und Effort-Reward-Imbalance-Modell beschriebenen Tätigkeitsmerkmale in Bezug auf Depressivität in einer Stichprobe von 265 Erwerbstätigen. Anhand konfirmatorischer Faktorenanalysen wurden Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede beider Modelle geprüft. Anschließend wurde die Bedeutung der nachweisbaren Tätigkeitsmerkmale für die Vorhersage von Depressivität getestet und untersucht, inwieweit die Effekte durch Überforderungserleben mediiert werden. Die Analysen zeigten, dass die Modelle sowohl gemeinsame (Arbeitsintensität bzw. berufliche Anforderungen) als auch distinkte Arbeitsmerkmale (Tätigkeitsspielraum, Arbeitsplatzsicherheit, beruflicher Status, soziale Anerkennung) erfassen. Hohe Arbeitsintensität, geringe Arbeitsplatzsicherheit und fehlende soziale Anerkennung standen in signifikantem Zusammenhang mit Depressivität. Anders als erwartet war der berufliche Status positiv mit Depressivität assoziiert, während für den Tätigkeitsspielraum keine signifikanten Effekte nachweisbar waren. Das Pfadmodell bestätigte sowohl direkte als auch durch Überforderungserleben vermittelte Zusammenhänge zwischen den Tätigkeitsmerkmalen und Depressivität (39 % Varianzaufklärung). Die Ergebnisse bieten eine Grundlage für die Identifizierung potenzieller Risikofaktoren für das Auftreten depressiver Symptome am Arbeitsplatz. This study examined the job characteristics in the Job-Demand-Control-Support Model and in the Effort-Reward Imbalance Model with regard to depression in a sample of 265 employees. First, we tested by means of confirmatory factor analysis similarities and differences of the two models. Secondly, job characteristics were introduced as predictors in a path model to test their relation with depression. Furthermore, we examined whether the associations were mediated by the experience of excessive demands. Our analyses showed the demand/effort component to be one common factor, while decision latitude and reward (subdivided into the three facets of job security, social recognition, and status-related reward) remained distinctive components. Employees with high job demands/effort, low job security, low social recognition, but high status-related rewards reported higher depression scores. Unexpectedly, status-related rewards were positively associated with depression, while we found no significant effects for decision latitude. The path models confirmed direct as well as mediation effects (through experienced excessive demands) between job characteristics and depression (39 % explained variance in depression). Our results could be useful to identify possible job-related risk factors for depression.

How innovation can alleviate negative consequences of demanding work contexts:The influence of climate for innovation on organizational outcomes

This study examines climate for innovation as a method by which negative organizational consequences of demanding work may be lessened. It was expected that a climate for innovation would enable employees to develop coping mechanisms or improved work-related processes which counteract negative consequences of work demands. Extending the job demands-resource model (Karasek, 1979), we predicted and found that among the sample of 22,696 respondents from 131 healthcare organizations, organizational climate for innovation alleviated the negative effects of work demands on organizational performance. Thus, this study informs climate theories and guides practitioners' efforts to support the employees. © 2007 The British Psychological Society.

Are HRM practices related with patient mortality in NHS hospitals?:A study examining the underlying reasons for such an association

This thesis will report details of two studies conducted within the National Health Service in the UK that examined the association between HRM practices related to training and appraisal with health outcomes within NHS Trusts. Study one represents the organisational analysis of 61 NHS Trusts, and will report training and appraisal practices were significantly associated with lower patient mortality. Specifically, the research will show significantly lower patient mortality within NHS Trusts that: a) had achieved Investors in People accreditation; b) had a formal strategy document relating to training; c) had tailored training policy documents across occupational groups; d) had integrated training and appraisal practices; e) had a high percentage of staff receiving either an appraisal or updated personal development plan. There was also evidence of an additive effect where NHS Trusts that displayed more of these characteristics had significantly lower patient mortality. Study one in this thesis will also report significantly lower patient mortality within the NHS Trusts where there was broad level representation for the HR function. Study two will report details of a study conducted to examine the potential reasons why HR practices may be related to hospital performance. Details are given of the results of a staff attitudinal survey within five NHS Trusts. This study examined will show that a range of developmental activity, the favourability of the immediate work environment (in relation to social support and role stressors) and motivational outcomes are important antecedents to citizenship behaviours. Furthermore, the thesis will report that principles of the demand-control model were adopted to examine the relationship between workplace support and role stressors, and workplace support, influence, and an understanding of role expectation help mitigate against the negative effects of work demands upon motivational outcomes.

From ideal to real:a longitudinal study of the role of implicit leadership theories on leader-member exchanges and employee outcomes

The results of the present longitudinal study demonstrate the importance of implicit leadership theories (ILTs) for the quality of leader-member exchanges (LMX) and employees' organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and well-being. Results based on a sample of 439 employees who completed the study questionnaires at 2 time points showed that the closer employees perceived their actual manager's profile to be to the ILTs they endorsed, the better the quality of LMX. Results also indicated that the implicit-explicit leadership traits difference had indirect effects on employee attitudes and well-being. These findings were consistent across employee groups that differed in terms of job demand and the duration of manager-employee relation, but not in terms of motivation. Furthermore, crossed-lagged modeling analyses of the longitudinal data explored the possibility of reciprocal effects between implicit-explicit leadership traits difference and LMX and provided support for the initially hypothesized direction of causal effects.

Gesundheitsrisiken bei Unternehmern

An einer Studie zum Zusammenhang zwischen der Gesundheit von Unternehmern, deren Arbeitsmerkmalen und deren Erfolg nahmen 53 klein- und mittelständische Unternehmer teil. Erfasste Arbeitsmerkmale waren: Handlungs-/Entscheidungsspielraum, Arbeitsintensität, Arbeitszeit, Konkurrenzdruck und Prognose über die Auftragsentwicklung. Der Unternehmenserfolg wurde über das Mitarbeiterwachstum, die Möglichkeit des Unternehmers, von seiner Firma abwesend zu sein (Urlaubstage), und dem erlebten Unternehmenserfolg operationalisiert. Gesundheitsindikatoren waren Depression, Angst, vitale Erschöpfung, Schlafstörungen und Bluthochdruck. Im Vergleich zur Gesamtbevölkerung wiesen die Unternehmer in allen untersuchten Gesundheitsvariablen häufiger Beeinträchtigungen auf. Regressionsanalysen ergaben, dass lange Arbeitszeiten und Konkurrenzdruck mit einer verzögerten Rückstellung des systolischen Blutdrucks (SBD) in der Freizeit und Nacht einhergingen. Alle untersuchten Erfolgsmerkmale waren für die Gesundheit prädiktiv. So war Mitarbeiterwachstum negativ mit dem SBD während der Arbeit sowie Schlafstörungen assoziiert. Je mehr Unternehmenserfolg erlebt wurde, desto geringer waren die Werte für vitale Erschöpfung und Depression. Die Urlaubsdauer war negativ mit Angst und vitaler Erschöpfung korreliert. Insgesamt hatte von den Arbeitsmerkmalen nur die Dauer der Arbeitszeit einen Effekt auf die Gesundheit von Unternehmern. Daneben existieren aber offensichtlich weitere Faktoren, die mit der Unternehmergesundheit in Beziehung stehen. Dies sind neben dem Konkurrenzdruck am Markt insbesondere Indikatoren des Unternehmenserfolgs. The relationship between health and workload as well as entrepreneurial success was analyzed in 53 entrepreneurs. Workload data (decision latitude, job demand, working time, competition, market development) were determined by using structured interviews and Karasek's job content questionnaire. Firm success was operationalized by employee growth, the possibility of absence from the company (days of holiday), and perceived success. Health was measured by questionnaires for sleep disturbances, vital exhaustion, depression, and anxiety, and by 24 hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. Regression analyses showed that working time and strength of competition within the market were predictive for systolic blood pressure (SBP) during leisure time and night, but not during work. All variables measuring entrepreneurial success were predictive for health. Employee growth was related to decreasing SBP during work and to fewer sleep disturbances. The duration of holidays was negatively related to vital exhaustion and anxiety. Perceived company success was negatively related to depression and vital exhaustion. In conclusion, only the relationship between working time and bad health conformed to findings reported for the relationship between work and health in employees. However, there were additional indicators, especially indicators of competition and entrepreneurial success, that affected the health of entrepreneurs.

Leadership and organisational outcomes in healthcare

This research examined to what extent and how leadership is related to organisational outcomes in healthcare. Based on the Job Demands-Resource model, a set of hypotheses was developed, which predicted that the effect of leadership on healthcare outcomes would be mediated by job design, employee engagement, work pressure, opportunity for involvement, and work-life balance. The research focused on the National Health Service (NHS) in England, and examined the relationships between senior leadership, first line supervisory leadership and outcomes. Three years of data (2008 – 2010) were gathered from four data sources: the NHS National Staff Survey, the NHS Inpatient Survey, the NHS Electronic Record, and the NHS Information Centre. The data were drawn from 390 healthcare organisations and over 285,000 staff annually for each of the three years. Parallel mediation regressions modelled both cross sectional and longitudinal designs. The findings revealed strong relationships between senior leadership and supervisor support respectively and job design, engagement, opportunity for involvement, and work-life balance, while senior leadership was also associated with work pressure. Except for job design, there were significant relationships between the mediating variables and the outcomes of patient satisfaction, employee job satisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover. Relative importance analysis showed that senior leadership accounted for significantly more variance in relationships with outcomes than supervisor support in the majority of models tested. Results are discussed in relation to theoretical and practical contributions. They suggest that leadership plays a significant role in organisational outcomes in healthcare and that previous research may have underestimated how influential senior leaders may be in relation to these outcomes. Moreover, the research suggests that leaders in healthcare may influence outcomes by the way they manage the work pressure, engagement, opportunity for involvement and work-life balance of those they lead.

New measures of job control, cognitive demand and production responsibility

Recent research has highlighted several job characteristics salient to employee well-being and behavior for which there are no adequate generally applicable measures. These include timing and method control, monitoring and problem-solving demand, and production responsibility. In this article, an attempt to develop measures of these constructs provided encouraging results. Confirmatory factor analyses applied to data from 2 samples of shop-floor employees showed a consistent fit to a common 5-factor measurement model. Scales corresponding to each of the dimensions showed satisfactory internal and test–retest reliabilities. As expected, the scales also discriminated between employees in different jobs and employees working with contrasting technologies.

A model of transactional and transformational leadership for services personnel

This paper is concerned with the effects that leadership styles (i.e., transactional and transformational) can have upon the level of front-line employees’ service delivery quality. Previous literature has mostly looked at leadership and its effects upon subordinates within a sales, psychology, or human resources context. However, due to the idiosyncrasies inherent in services (i.e., intangibility, heterogeneity, perishability, and inseparability), it is likely that, in such a context, different leadership styles will effect performance outcomes. Consequently, this paper seeks to expand the services marketing literature by developing a conceptual framework of leadership style effects adapted to the field of services marketing. Of particular importance are the effects that leadership styles have upon front-line employee “motivators” and service-related job outcomes. Specific hypotheses are developed and future research directions are also presented for consideration.

Promoting creativity at work:the role of problem-solving demand

We propose that problem-solving demand (PSD) is an important job attribute for employees' creative performance. Applying job design theory, we examined the relationship between PSD and employee creativity. The theorised model was tested with data obtained from a sample of 270 employees and their supervisors from three Chinese organisations. Regression results revealed that PSD was positively related to creativity, and this relationship was mediated by creative self-efficacy. Additionally, intrinsic motivation moderated the relationship between PSD and creative self-efficacy such that the relationship was stronger for individuals with high rather than low intrinsic motivation. We discuss our findings, implications for practice, and future research.

Introduction: improving manufacturing performance through technology diffusion, implementation and management

The role of technology management in achieving improved manufacturing performance has been receiving increased attention as enterprises are becoming more exposed to competition from around the world. In the modern market for manufactured goods the demand is now for more product variety, better quality, shorter delivery and greater flexibility, while the financial and environmental cost of resources has become an urgent concern to manufacturing managers. This issue of the International Journal of Technology Management addresses the question of how the diffusion, implementation and management of technology can improve the performance of manufacturing industries. The authors come from a large number of different countries and their contributions cover a wide range of topics within this general theme. Some papers are conceptual, others report on research carried out in a range of different industries including steel production, iron founding, electronics, robotics, machinery, precision engineering, metal working and motor manufacture. In some cases they describe situations in specific countries. Several are based on presentations made at the UK Operations Management Association's Sixth International Conference held at Aston University at which the conference theme was 'Achieving Competitive Edge: Getting Ahead Through Technology and People'. The first two papers deal with questions of advanced manufacturing technology implementation and management. Firstly Beatty describes a three year longitudinal field study carried out in ten Canadian manufacturing companies using CADICAM and CIM systems. Her findings relate to speed of implementation, choice of system type, the role of individuals in implementation, organization and job design. This is followed by a paper by Bessant in which he argues that a more a strategic approach should be taken towards the management of technology in the 1990s and beyond. Also considered in this paper are the capabilities necessary in order to deploy advanced manufacturing technology as a strategic resource and the way such capabilities might be developed within the firm. These two papers, which deal largely with the implementation of hardware, are supplemented by Samson and Sohal's contribution in which they argue that a much wider perspective should be adopted based on a new approach to manufacturing strategy formulation. Technology transfer is the topic of the following two papers. Pohlen again takes the case of advanced manufacturing technology and reports on his research which considers the factors contributing to successful realisation of AMT transfer. The paper by Lee then provides a more detailed account of technology transfer in the foundry industry. Using a case study based on a firm which has implemented a number of transferred innovations a model is illustrated in which the 'performance gap' can be identified and closed. The diffusion of technology is addressed in the next two papers. In the first of these, by Lowe and Sim, the managerial technologies of 'Just in Time' and 'Manufacturing Resource Planning' (or MRP 11) are examined. A study is described from which a number of factors are found to influence the adoption process including, rate of diffusion and size. Dahlin then considers the case of a specific item of hardware technology, the industrial robot. Her paper reviews the history of robot diffusion since the early 1960s and then tries to predict how the industry will develop in the future. The following two papers deal with the future of manufacturing in a more general sense. The future implementation of advanced manufacturing technology is the subject explored by de Haan and Peters who describe the results of their Dutch Delphi forecasting study conducted among a panel of experts including scientists, consultants, users and suppliers of AMT. Busby and Fan then consider a type of organisational model, 'the extended manufacturing enterprise', which would represent a distinct alternative pure market-led and command structures by exploiting the shared knowledge of suppliers and customers. The three country-based papers consider some strategic issues relating manufacturing technology. In a paper based on investigations conducted in China He, Liff and Steward report their findings from strategy analyses carried out in the steel and watch industries with a view to assessing technology needs and organizational change requirements. This is followed by Tang and Nam's paper which examines the case of machinery industry in Korea and its emerging importance as a key sector in the Korean economy. In his paper which focuses on Venezuela, Ernst then considers the particular problem of how this country can address the problem of falling oil revenues. He sees manufacturing as being an important contributor to Venezuela's future economy and proposes a means whereby government and private enterprise can co-operate in development of the manufacturing sector. The last six papers all deal with specific topics relating to the management manufacturing. Firstly Youssef looks at the question of manufacturing flexibility, introducing and testing a conceptual model that relates computer based technologies flexibility. Dangerfield's paper which follows is based on research conducted in the steel industry. He considers the question of scale and proposes a modelling approach determining the plant configuration necessary to meet market demand. Engstrom presents the results of a detailed investigation into the need for reorganising material flow where group assembly of products has been adopted. Sherwood, Guerrier and Dale then report the findings of a study into the effectiveness of Quality Circle implementation. Stillwagon and Burns, consider how manufacturing competitiveness can be improved individual firms by describing how the application of 'human performance engineering' can be used to motivate individual performance as well as to integrate organizational goals. Finally Sohal, Lewis and Samson describe, using a case study example, how just-in-time control can be applied within the context of computer numerically controlled flexible machining lines. The papers in this issue of the International Journal of Technology Management cover a wide range of topics relating to the general question of improving manufacturing performance through the dissemination, implementation and management of technology. Although they differ markedly in content and approach, they have the collective aim addressing the concepts, principles and practices which provide a better understanding the technology of manufacturing and assist in achieving and maintaining a competitive edge.

Enhancing creativity in a general work environment : the role of problem-solving demand

Prior research suggests management can employ cognitively demanding job attributes to promote employee creativity. However, it is not clear what specific type of cognitive demand is particularly important for creativity, what processes underpin the relationship between demanding job conditions and creativity and what factors lead to employee perceptions of demanding job attributes. This research sets out to address the aforementioned issues by examining: (i) problem-solving demand (PDS), a specific type of cognitive demand, and the processes that link PSD to creativity, and (ii) antecedents to PSD. Based on social cognitive theory, PSD was hypothesized to be positively related to creativity through the motivational mechanism of creative self-efficacy. However, the relationship between PSD and creative self-efficacy was hypothesized to be contingent on levels of intrinsic motivation. Social information processing perspective and the job crafting model were used to identify antecedents of PSD. Consequently, two social-contextual factors (supervisor developmental feedback and job autonomy) and one individual factor (proactive personality) were hypothesized to be precursors to PSD perceptions. The theorized model was tested with data obtained from a sample of 270 employees and their supervisors from 3 organisations in the People’s Republic of China. Regression results revealed that PSD was positively related to creativity but this relationship was partially mediated by creative self-efficacy. Additionally, intrinsic motivation moderated the relationship between PSD and creative self-efficacy such that the relationship was stronger for individuals high rather than low in intrinsic motivation. The findings represent a productive first step in identifying a specific cognitive demand that is conducive to employee creativity. In addition, the findings contribute to the literature by identifying a psychological mechanism that may link cognitively demanding job attributes and creativity.

The development of a regional energy assessment model

Shropshire Energy Team initiated this study to examine consumption and associated emissions in the predominantly rural county of Shropshire. Current use of energy is not sustainable in the long term and there are various approaches to dealing with the environmental problems it creates. Energy planning by a local authority for a sustainable future requires detailed energy consumption and environmental information. This information would enable target setting and the implementation of policies designed to encourage energy efficiency improvements and exploitation of renewable energy resources. This could aid regeneration strategies by providing new employment opportunities. Associated reductions in carbon dioxide and other emissions would help to meet national and international environmental targets. In the absence of this detailed information, the objective was to develop a methodology to assess energy consumption and emissions on a regional basis from 1990 onwards for all local planning authorities. This would enable a more accurate assessment of the relevant issues, such that plans are more appropriate and longer lasting. A first comprehensive set of data has been gathered from a wide range of sources and a strong correlation was found between population and energy consumption for a variety of regions across the UK. In this case the methodology was applied to the county of Shropshire to give, for the first time, estimates of primary fuel consumption, electricity consumption and associated emissions in Shropshire for 1990 to 2025. The estimates provide a suitable baseline for assessing the potential contribution renewable energy could play in meeting electricity demand in the country and in reducing emissions. The assessment indicated that in 1990 total primary fuel consumption was 63,518,018 GJ/y increasing to 119,956,465 GJ/y by 2025. This is associated with emissions of 1,129,626 t/y of carbon in 1990 rising to 1,303,282 t/y by 2025. In 1990, 22,565,713 GJ/y of the primary fuel consumption was used for generating electricity rising to 23,478,050 GJ/y in 2025. If targets to reduce primary fuel consumption are reached, then emissions of carbon would fall to 1,042,626 by 2025, if renewable energy targets were also reached then emissions of carbon would fall to 988,638 t/y by 2025.

Calculating the balance between water resources and water demands:an approach using risk analysis

Predicting future need for water resources has traditionally been, at best, a crude mixture of art and science. This has prevented the evaluation of water need from being carried out in either a consistent or comprehensive manner. This inconsistent and somewhat arbitrary approach to water resources planning led to well publicised premature developments in the 1970's and 1980's but privatisation of the Water Industry, including creation of the Office of Water Services and the National Rivers Authority in 1989, turned the tide of resource planning to the point where funding of schemes and their justification by the Regulators could no longer be assumed. Furthermore, considerable areas of uncertainty were beginning to enter the debate and complicate the assessment It was also no longer appropriate to consider that contingencies would continue to lie solely on the demand side of the equation. An inability to calculate the balance between supply and demand may mean an inability to meet standards of service or, arguably worse, an excessive provision of water resources and excessive costs to customers. United Kingdom Water Industry Research limited (UKWlR) Headroom project in 1998 provided a simple methodology for the calculation of planning margins. This methodology, although well received, was not, however, accepted by the Regulators as a tool sufficient to promote resource development. This thesis begins by considering the history of water resource planning in the UK, moving on to discuss events following privatisation of the water industry post·1985. The mid section of the research forms the bulk of original work and provides a scoping exercise which reveals a catalogue of uncertainties prevalent within the supply-demand balance. Each of these uncertainties is considered in terms of materiality, scope, and whether it can be quantified within a risk analysis package. Many of the areas of uncertainty identified would merit further research. A workable, yet robust, methodology for evaluating the balance between water resources and water demands by using a spreadsheet based risk analysis package is presented. The technique involves statistical sampling and simulation such that samples are taken from input distributions on both the supply and demand side of the equation and the imbalance between supply and demand is calculated in the form of an output distribution. The percentiles of the output distribution represent different standards of service to the customer. The model allows dependencies between distributions to be considered, for improved uncertainties to be assessed and for the impact of uncertain solutions to any imbalance to be calculated directly. The method is considered a Significant leap forward in the field of water resource planning.