The development of attenuation compensation models of fluorescence spectroscopy signals

This study examines the effect of blood absorption on the endogenous fluorescence signal intensity of biological tissues. Experimental studies were conducted to identify these effects. To register the fluorescence intensity, the fluorescence spectroscopy method was employed. The intensity of the blood flow was measured by laser Doppler flowmetry. We proposed one possible implementation of the Monte Carlo method for the theoretical analysis of the effect of blood on the fluorescence signals. The simulation is constructed as a four-layer skin optical model based on the known optical parameters of the skin with different levels of blood supply. With the help of the simulation, we demonstrate how the level of blood supply can affect the appearance of the fluorescence spectra. In addition, to describe the properties of biological tissue, which may affect the fluorescence spectra, we turned to the method of diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS). Using the spectral data provided by the DRS, the tissue attenuation effect can be extracted and used to correct the fluorescence spectra.

Development of a non-destructive fluorescence technique for analysis of contact lens deposition levels

The primary objective of this research has been to determine the potential of fluorescence spectroscopy as a method for analysis of surface deposition on contact lenses. In order to achieve this it was first necessary to ascertain whether fluorescence analysis would be able to detect and distinguish between protein and lipid deposited on a lens surface. In conjunction with this it was important to determine the specific excitation wavelengths at which these deposited species were detected with the greatest sensitivity. Experimental observations showed that an excitation wavelength of 360nm would detect lipid deposited on a lens surface, and an excitation wavelength of 280nm would detect and distinguish between protein and lipid deposited on a contact lens. It was also very important to determine whether clean unspoilt lenses showed significant levels of fluorescence themselves. Fluorescence spectra recorded from a variety of unworn contact lenses at excitation wavelengths of 360nm and 280nm indicated that most contact lens materials do not fluoresce themselves to any great extent. Following these initial experiments various clinically and laboratory based studies were performed using fluorescence spectroscopy as a method of analysing contact lens deposition levels. The clinically based studies enabled analysis of contact lenses with known wear backgrounds to be rapidly and individually analysed following discontinuation of wear. Deposition levels in the early stages of lens wear were determined for various lens materials. The effect of surfactant cleaning on deposition levels was also investigated. The laboratory based studies involved comparing some of the in vivo results with those of identical lenses that had been spoilt using an in vitro method. Finally, an examination of lysosyme migration into and out of stored ionic high water contact lenses was made.

Individual variability analysis of fluorescence parameters measured in skin with different levels of nutritive blood flow

Fluorescence spectroscopy has recently become more common in clinical medicine. However, there are still many unresolved issues related to the methodology and implementation of instruments with this technology. In this study, we aimed to assess individual variability of fluorescence parameters of endogenous markers (NADH, FAD, etc.) measured by fluorescent spectroscopy (FS) in situ and to analyse the factors that lead to a significant scatter of results. Most studied fluorophores have an acceptable scatter of values (mostly up to 30%) for diagnostic purposes. Here we provide evidence that the level of blood volume in tissue impacts FS data with a significant inverse correlation. The distribution function of the fluorescence intensity and the fluorescent contrast coefficient values are a function of the normal distribution for most of the studied fluorophores and the redox ratio. The effects of various physiological (different content of skin melanin) and technical (characteristics of optical filters) factors on the measurement results were additionally studied.The data on the variability of the measurement results in FS should be considered when interpreting the diagnostic parameters, as well as when developing new algorithms for data processing and FS devices.

The significance of hand wash compliance on the transfer of dermal lipids in contact lens wear

Aim: The aim of this study was to assess the impact of hand washing regimes on lipid transference to contact lenses. The presence of lipids on contact lenses can affect visual acuity and enhance spoilation. Additionally, they may even mediate and foster microbial transfer and serve as a marker of potential dermal contamination. Methods and materials: A social hand wash and the Royal College of Nursing (RCN) hand wash were investigated. A 'no-wash regime' was used as control. The transfer of lipids from the hand was assessed by Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC). Lipid transference to the contact lenses was studied through fluorescence spectroscopy (FS). Results: Iodine staining, for presence of lipids, on TLC plates indicated the 'no-wash regime' score averaged at 3.4 ± 0.8, the social wash averaged at 2.2 ± 0.9 and the RCN averaged at 1.2 ± 0.3 on a scale of 1-4. The FS of lipids on contact lenses for 'no washing' presented an average of 28.47 ± 10.54 fluorescence units (FU), the social wash presented an average of 13.52 ± 11.12. FU and the RCN wash presented a much lower average 6.47 ± 4.26. FU. Conclusions: This work demonstrates how the method used for washing the hands can affect the concentration of lipids, and the transfer of these lipids onto contact lenses. A regime of hand washing for contact lens users should be standardised to help reduce potentially transferable species present on the hands. © 2011 British Contact Lens Association.

A novel plasma etching and emission monitoring system (PEEMS) to assess protein and lipid spoilation for hydrogel contact lenses

The work presents a new method that combines plasma etching with extrinsic techniques to simultaneously measure matrix and surface protein and lipid deposits. The acronym for this technique is PEEMS - Plasma Etching and Emission Monitoring System. Previous work has identified the presence of proteinaceous and lipoidal deposition on the surface of contact lenses and highlighted the probability that penetration of these spoilants will occur. This technique developed here allows unambiguous identification of the depth of penetration of spoilants to be made for various material types. It is for this reason that the technique has been employed in this thesis. The technique is applied as a 'molecular' scalpel, removing known amounts of material from the target. In this case from both the anterior .and posterior surfaces of a 'soft' contact lens. The residual material is then characterised by other analytical techniques such as UV/visible .and fluorescence spectroscopy. Several studies have be.en carried out for both in vivo and in vitro spoilt materials. The analysis and identification of absorbed protein and lipid of the substrate revealed the importance of many factors in the absorption and adsorption process. The effect of the material structure, protein nature (in terms of size, shape and charge) and environment conditions were examined in order to determine the relative uptake of tear proteins. The studies were extended to real cases in order to study the. patient dependent factors and lipoidal penetration.

The sedimentology and diagenesis of Lower Permian (Rotliegend) sediments: (onshore U.K. and southern North Sea). Available in 2 volumes.

The thesis provides a comparative study of both sedimentology and diagenesis of Lower Permian (Rotliegend) strata, onshore and offshore U.K. (Southern North Sea). Onshore formations studied include the Bridgnorth, Penrith and Hopeman Sandstone, and are dominated by aeolian facies, with lesser amounts of interbedded fluvial sediments. Aeolian and fluvial strata in onshore basins typically grade laterally into alluvial fan breccias at basin margins. Onshore basins represent proximal examples of Rotliegend desert sediments. The Leman Sandstone Formation of the Ravenspurn area in the Southern North Sea displays a variety of facies indicative of a distal sedimentological setting; Aeolian, fluvial, sabkha, and playa lake sediments all being present. "Sheet-like" geometry of stratigraphical units within the Leman Sandstone, and alternation of fluvial and aeolian deposition was climatically controlled. Major first order bounding surfaces are laterally extensive and were produced by lacustrine transgression and regression from the north-west. Diagenesis within Permian strata was studied using standard petrographic microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, cold cathodo-Iuminescence, X-ray diffraction clay analysis, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, fluid inclusion microthermometry, and K-Ar dating of illites. The diagenesis of Permian sediments within onshore basins is remarkably similar, and a paragenetic sequence of early haematite, illitic clays, feldspar, kaolinite, quartz and late calcite is observed. In the Leman Sandstone formation, authigenic mineralogy is complex and includes early quartz, sulphates and dolomite, chlorite, kaolinite, late quartz, illite and siderite. Primary lithological variation, facies type, and the interdigitation and location of facies within a basin are important initial controls upon diagenesis. Subsequently, burial history, structure, the timing of gas emplacement, and the nature of sediments within underlying formations may also exersize significant controls upon diagenesis within Rotliegend strata.

Do ‘passive’ medical titanium surfaces deteriorate in service in the absence of wear?

Globally, more than 1000 tonnes of titanium (Ti) is implanted into patients in the form of biomedical devices on an annual basis. Ti is perceived to be ‘biocompatible’ owing to the presence of a robust passive oxide film (approx. 4 nm thick) at the metal surface. However, surface deterioration can lead to the release of Ti ions, and particles can arise as the result of wear and/or corrosion processes. This surface deterioration can result in peri-implant inflammation, leading to the premature loss of the implanted device or the requirement for surgical revision. Soft tissues surrounding commercially pure cranial anchorage devices (bone-anchored hearing aid) were investigated using synchrotron X-ray micro-fluorescence spectroscopy and X-ray absorption near edge structure. Here, we present the first experimental evidence that minimal load-bearing Ti implants, which are not subjected to macroscopic wear processes, can release Ti debris into the surrounding soft tissue. As such debris has been shown to be pro-inflammatory, we propose that such distributions of Ti are likely to effect to the service life of the device.

Hydroxyl radical generation by cactus-like copper oxide nanoporous carbon catalysts for microcystin-LR environmental remediation

Copper oxide supported on nanoporous activated carbon (CuO-NPAC) is reported for the aqueous phase catalytic degradation of cyanotoxin microcystin-LR (MC-LR). The loading and spatial distribution of CuO throughout the NPAC matrix strongly influence the catalytic efficiency. CuO-NPAC synthesis was optimized with respect to the copper loading and thermal processing, and the physicochemical properties of the resulting materials were characterized by XRD, BET, TEM, SEM, EPR, TGA, XPS and FT-IR spectroscopy. EPR spin trapping and fluorescence spectroscopy showed in situ ˙OH formation via H2O2 over CuO-NPAC as the catalytically relevant oxidant. The impact of reaction conditions, notably CuO-NPAC loading, H2O2 concentration and solution pH, is discussed in relation to the reaction kinetics for MC-LR remediation.

Synthesis and application of novel probes for the detection of cysteine sulphenic acids

Cysteine is a thiol containing amino acid that readily undergoes oxidation by reactive oxygen species (ROS) to form sulphenic (R-SOH) sulphinic (RSO2H) and sulphonic (RSO3H) acids. Thiol modifications of cysteine have been implicated as modulators of cellular processes and represent significant biological modifications that occur during oxidative stress and cell signalling. However, the different oxidation states are difficult to monitor in a physiological setting due to the limited availability of experimental tools. Therefore it is of interest to synthesise and use a chemical probe that selectively recognises the reversible oxidation state of cysteine sulphenic acid to understand more about oxidative signalling. The aim of this thesis was to investigate a synthetic approach for novel fluorescent probe synthesis, for the specific detection of cysteine sulphenic acids by fluorescence spectroscopy and confocal microscopy. N-[2-(Anthracen-2-ylamino)-2-oxoethyl]-3,5-dioxocyclohexanecarboxamide was synthesised in a multistep synthesis and characterised by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The optimisation of conditions needed for sulphenic acid formation in a purified protein using human serum albumin (HSA) and the commercially available biotin tagged probe 3-(2,4-dioxocyclohexyl)propyl-5-((3aR,6S,6aS)-hexahydro-2-oxo-1H-thieno[3,4-d]imidazol-6-yl)pentanoate (DCP-Bio1) were identified. This approach was extended to detect sulphenic acids in Jurkat T cells and CD4+ T cells pre- and post-stimulus. Buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) was used to manipulate the endogenous antioxidant glutathione (GSH) in human CD4+ T cells. Then the surface protein thiol levels and sulphenic acid formation was examined. T cells were also activated by the lectin phytohaemagglutinin-L (PHA-L) and formation of sulphenic acid was investigated using SDS-PAGE, western blotting and confocal microscopy. Resting Jurkat cells have two prominent protein bands that have sulphenic acid modifications whereas resting CD4+ T cells have an additional band present. When cells were treated with BSO the number of bands increased whereas activation reduced the number of proteins that were modified. The identities of the protein bands containing sulphenic acids were explored by mass spectrometry. Cysteine oxidation was observed in redox, metabolic and cytoskeletal proteins. In summary, a novel fluorescent probe for detection of cysteine sulphenic acids has been synthesised alongside a model system that introduces cysteine sulphenic acid in primary T cells. This probe has potential application in the subcellular localisation of cysteine oxidation during T cell signalling.

The blood perfusion and NADH/FAD content combined analysis in patients with diabetes foot

Skin blood microcirculation and the metabolism activity of tissue were examined on the patients with type 2 diabetes. Laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) with 1064 nm laser light source and fluorescence spectroscopy (FS) with excitation light of 365 nm and 450 nm have been used to monitor the blood perfusion and the content of coenzymes NADH and FAD. Concluding, the proposed combined LDF and tissue FS approach allows to identify the significant violations in the blood microcirculation and metabolic activity for type 2 diabetes patients.

Development of photosensitive liposomes for the controlled release of drugs

The facility to controlled triggered release from a “cage” system remains a key requirement for novel drug delivery. Earlier studies have shown that Bis-Azo PC based photosensitive liposomes are beneficial for drug delivery. Thus, the aim of this project was to develop photosensitive liposomes that can be used for the controlled release of drugs through UV irradiation, particularly therapeutic agents for the treatment of psoriasis. Bis-Azo PC was successfully synthesized and incorporated into a range of liposomal formulations, and these liposomes were applied for the controlled release of BSA-FITC. Bis-Azo PC sensitized liposomes were prepared via interdigitation fusion method. IFV containing optimum cholesterol amount in terms of protein loading, stability and photo-trigger release of protein was investigated. Further studies investigated the stability and triggered release of the HMT from IFV. Finally, permeation behavior of HMT and HMT-entrapped IFV through rat skin was examined using Franz cell. Results from protein study indicated that the stable entrapment of the model protein was feasible as shown through fluorescence spectroscopy and maximum of 84% protein release from IFV after 12 min of UV irradiation. Moreover, stability studies indicated that IFV were more stable at 4 0C as compared to 25 0C. Hence, DPPC:Chol:Bis-Azo PC (16:2:1) based IFV was chosen for the controlled release of HMT and these studies exhibited that photo-trigger release and stability data of HMT-entrapped IFV are in line with the protein results. Franz cell work inferred that HMT-entrapped IFV attributed to slower skin permeation as compared to HMT. CLSM also demonstrated that HMT can be used as a fluorescent label for the in vitro skin study. Overall, the work highlighted in this thesis has given useful insight into the potentials of Bis-Azo PC based IFV as a promising carrier for the treatment of psoriasis.