A detailed design study of leaching and ancillary processes in the hydrometallurgical extraction of iron from iron bearing feedstocks

A systematic survey of the possible methods of chemical extraction of iron by chloride formation has been presented and supported by a comparable study of :feedstocks, products and markets. The generation and evaluation of alternative processes was carried out by the technique of morphological analysis vihich was exploited by way of a computer program. The final choice was related to technical feasibility and economic viability, particularly capital cost requirements and developments were made in an estimating procedure for hydrometallurgjcal processes which have general applications. The systematic exploration included the compilation of relevant data, and this indicated a need.to investigate precipitative hydrolysis or aqueous ferric chloride. Arising from this study, two novel hydrometallurgical processes for manufacturing iron powder are proposed and experimental work was undertaken in the following .areas to demonstrate feasibility and obtain basic data for design purposes: (1) Precipitative hydrolysis of aqueous ferric chloride. (2) Gaseous chloridation of metallic iron, and oxidation of resultant ferrous chloride. (3) Reduction of gaseous ferric chloride with hydrogen. (4) Aqueous acid leaching of low grade iron ore. (5) Aqueous acid leaching of metallic iron. The experimentation was supported by theoretical analyses dealing with: (1) Thermodynamics of hydrolysis. (2) Kinetics of ore leaching. (3) Kinetics of metallic iron leaching. (4) Crystallisation of ferrous chloride. (5) Oxidation of anhydrous ferrous chloride. (6) Reduction of ferric chloride. Conceptual designs are suggested fbr both the processes mentioned. These draw attention to areas where further work is necessary, which are listed. Economic analyses have been performed which isolate significant cost areas, und indicate total production costs. Comparisons are mode with previous and analogous proposals for the production of iron powder.

The production of fructose from carbohydrate feedstocks

A review of the general chromatographic theory and of continuous chromatographic techniques has been carried out. Three methods of inversion of sucrose to glucose and fructose in beet molasses were explored. These methods were the inversion of sucrose using the enzyme invertase, by the use of hydrochloric acid and the use of the resin Amberlite IR118 in the H+ form. The preferred method on economic and purity considerations was by the use of the enzyme invertase. The continuous chromatographic separation of inverted beet molasses resulting in a fructose rich product and a product containing glucose and other non-sugars was carried out using a semi-continuous counter-current chromatographic refiner (SCCR6), consisting of ten 10.8cm x 75cm long stainless steel columns packed with a calcium charged 8% cross-linked polystyrene resin Zerolit SRC 14. Based on the literature this is the first time such a continuous separation has been attempted. It was found that the cations present in beet molasses displaced the calcium ions from the resin resulting in poor separation of the glucose and fructose. Three methods of maintaining the calcium form of the resin during the continuous operation of the equipment were established. Passing a solution of calcium nitrate through the purge column for half a switch period was found to be most effective as there was no contamination of the main fructose rich product and the product concentrations were increased by 50%. When a 53% total solids (53 Brix) molasses feedstock was used, the throughput was 34.13kg sugar solids per m3 of resin per hour. Product purities of 97% fructose in fructose rich (FRP) and 96% glucose in the glucose rich (GRP) products were obtained with product concentrations of 10.93 %w/w for the FRP and 10.07 %w/w for the GRP. The effects of flowrates, temperature and background sugar concentration on the distribution coefficients of fructose, glucose, betaine and an ionic component of beet molasses were evaluated and general relationships derived. The computer simulation of inverted beet molasses separations on an SCCR system has been carried out successfully.

Heterogeneous catalysts for converting renewable feedstocks to fuels and chemicals

The combination of dwindling oil reserves and growing concerns over carbon dioxide emissions and associated climate change is driving the urgent development of routes to utilise renewable feedstocks as sustainable sources of fuel and chemicals. Catalysis has a rich history of facilitating energy-efficient selective molecular transformations and contributes to 90% of chemical manufacturing processes and to more than 20% of all industrial products. In a post-petroleum era, catalysis will be central to overcoming the engineering and scientific barriers to economically feasible routes to biofuels and chemicals. This chapter will highlight some of the recent developments in heterogeneous catalytic technology for the synthesis of fuels and chemicals from renewable resources, derived from plant and aquatic oil sources as well as lignocellulosic feedstocks. Particular attention will be paid to the challenges faced when developing new catalysts and importance of considering the design of pore architectures and effect of tuning surface polarity to improve catalyst compatibility with highly polar bio-based substrates.

Comparison of the effect of pre-treatment and catalysts on liquid quality from fast pyrolysis of biomass

The overall objective of this work was to compare the effect of pre-treatment and catalysts on the quality of liquid products from fast pyrolysis of biomass. This study investigated the upgrading of bio-oil in terms of its quality as a bio-fuel and/or source of chemicals. Bio-oil used directly as a biofuel for heat or power needs to be improved particularly in terms of temperature sensitivity, oxygen content, chemical instability, solid content, and heating values. Chemicals produced from bio-oil need to be able to meet product specifications for market acceptability. There were two main objectives in this research. The first was to examine the influence of pre-treatment of biomass on the fast pyrolysis process and liquid quality. The relationship between the method of pre-treatment of biomass feedstock to fast pyrolysis oil quality was studied. The thermal decomposition behaviour of untreated and pretreated feedstocks was studied by using a TGA (thermogravimetric analysis) and a Py-GC/MS (pyroprobe-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry). Laboratory scale reactors (100g/h, 300g/h, 1kg/h) were used to process untreated and pretreated feedstocks by fast pyrolysis. The second objective was to study the influence of numerous catalysts on fast pyrolysis liquids from wheat straw. The first step applied analytical pyrolysis (Py-GC/MS) to determine which catalysts had an effect on fast pyrolysis liquid, in order to select catalysts for further laboratory fast pyrolysis. The effect of activation, temperature, and biomass pre-treatment on catalysts were also investigated. Laboratory experiments were also conducted using the existing 300g/h fluidised bed reactor system with a secondary catalytic fixed bed reactor. The screening of catalysts showed that CoMo was a highly active catalyst, which particularly reduced the higher molecular weight products of fast pyrolysis. From these screening tests, CoMo catalyst was selected for larger scale laboratory experiments. With reference to the effect of pre-treatment work on fast pyrolysis process, a significant effect occurred on the thermal decomposition of biomass, as well as the pyrolysis products composition, and the proportion of key components in bio-oil. Torrefaction proved to have a mild influence on pyrolysis products, when compared to aquathermolysis and steam pre-treatment.

The development and optimisation of a fast pyrolysis process for bio-oil production

A two-tier study is presented in this thesis. The first involves the commissioning of an extant but at the time, unproven bubbling fluidised bed fast pyrolysis unit. The unit was designed for an intended nominal throughput of 300 g/h of biomass. The unit came complete with solids separation, pyrolysis vapour quenching and oil collection systems. Modifications were carried out on various sections of the system including the reactor heating, quenching and liquid collection systems. The modifications allowed for fast pyrolysis experiments to be carried out at the appropriate temperatures. Bio-oil was generated using conventional biomass feedstocks including Willow, beechwood, Pine and Miscanthus. Results from this phase of the research showed however, that although the rig was capable of processing biomass to bio-oil, it was characterised by low mass balance closures and recurrent operational problems. The problems included blockages, poor reactor hydrodynamics and reduced organic liquid yields. The less than optimal performance of individual sections, particularly the feed and reactor systems of the rig, culminated in a poor overall performance of the system. The second phase of this research involved the redesign of two key components of the unit. An alternative feeding system was commissioned for the unit. The feed system included an off the shelf gravimetric system for accurate metering and efficient delivery of biomass. Similarly, a new bubbling fluidised bed reactor with an intended nominal throughput of 500g/h of biomass was designed and constructed. The design leveraged on experience from the initial commissioning phase with proven kinetic and hydrodynamic studies. These units were commissioned as part of the optimisation phase of the study. Also as part of this study, two varieties each, of previously unreported feedstocks namely Jatropha curcas and Moringa olifiera oil seed press cakes were characterised to determine their suitability as feedstocks for liquid fuel production via fast pyrolysis. Consequently, the feedstocks were used for the production of pyrolysis liquids. The quality of the pyrolysis liquids from the feedstocks were then investigated via a number of analytical techniques. The oils from the press cakes showed high levels of stability and reduced pH values. The improvements to the design of the fast pyrolysis unit led to higher mass balance closures and increased organic liquid yields. The maximum liquid yield obtained from the press cakes was from African Jatropha press cake at 66 wt% on a dry basis.

The pre-treatment and pyrolysis of biomass for the production of liquids for fuels and speciality chemicals

Fast pyrolysis of biomass is a significant technology for producing pyrolysis liquids [also known as bio-oil], which contain a number of chemicals. The pyrolysis liquid can be used as a fuel, can be produced solely as a source of chemicals or can have some of the chemicals extracted and the residue used as a fuel. There were two primary objectives of this work. The first was to determine the fast pyrolysis conditions required to maximise the pyrolysis liquid yield from a number of biomass feedstocks. The second objective was to selectively increase the yield of certain chemicals in the pyrolysis liquid by pre-treatment of the feedstock prior to pyrolysis. For a particular biomass feedstock the pyrolysis liquid yield is affected by the reactor process parameters. It has been found that, providing the other process parameters are restricted to the values shown below, reactor temperature is the controlling parameter. The maximum pyrolysis liquid yield and the temperature at which it occurs has been found by a series of pyrolysis experiments over the temperature range 400-600°C. high heating rates > 1000°C/s; pyrolysis vapour residence times <2 seconds; pyrolysis vapour temperatures >400 but <500°C; rapid quenching of the product vapours. Pre-treatment techniques have been devised to modify the chemical composition and/or structure of the biomass in such a way as to influence the chemical composition of the pyrolysis liquid product. The pre-treatments were divided into two groups, those that remove material from the biomass and those which add material to the biomass. Component removal techniques have selectively increased the yield of levoglucosan from 2.45 to 18.58 mf wt.% [dry feedstock basis]. Additive techniques have selectively increased the yield of hydroxyacetaldehyde from 7.26 to 11.63 mf w.% [dry feedstock basis]. Techno-economic assessment has been carried out on an integrated levoglucosan production process [incorporating pre-treatment, pyrolysis and chemical extraction stages] to assess which method of chemical production is the more cost effective. It has been found that it is better to pre-treat the biomass in order to increase the yield of specific chemicals in the pyrolysis liquid and hence improve subsequent chemicals extraction.

The effect of lignin and inorganic species in biomass on pyrolysis oil yields, quality and stability

This paper investigates four reference fuels and three low lignin Lolium Festuca grasses which were subjected to pyrolysis to produce pyrolysis oils. The oils were analysed to determine their quality and stability, enabling the identification of feedstock traits which affect oil stability. Two washed feedstocks were also subjected to pyrolysis to investigate whether washing can enhance pyrolysis oil quality. It was found that the mineral matter had the dominate effect on pyrolysis in compared to lignin content, in terms of pyrolysis yields for organics, char and gases. However the higher molecular weight compounds present in the pyrolysis oil are due to the lignin derived compounds as determined by results of GPC and liquid-GC/MS. The light organic fraction also increased in yield, but reduced in water content as metals increased at the expense of the lignin content. It was found that the fresh oil and aged oil had different compound intensities/concentrations, which is due to a large number of reactions occurring when the oil is aged day by day. These findings agree with previous reports which suggest that a large amount of re-polymerisation occurs as levoglucosan yields increase during the aging progress, while hydroxyacetaldehyde decrease. In summary the paper reports a window for producing a more stable pyrolysis oil by the use of energy crops, and also show that washing of biomass can improve oil quality and stability for high ash feedstocks, but less so for the energy crops.

Lignin pyrolysis: results from an international collaboration

An international study of fast pyrolysis of lignin was undertaken. Fourteen laboratories in eight different countries contributed. Two lignin samples were distributed to the laboratories for analysis and bench-scale process testing in fast pyrolysis. Analyses included proximate and ultimate analysis, thermogravimetric analysis, and analytical pyrolysis. The bench-scale test included bubbling fluidized-bed reactors and entrained-flow systems. Based on the results of the various analyses and tests it was concluded that a concentrated lignin (estimated at about 50% lignin and 50% cellulose) behaved like a typical biomass, producing a slightly reduced amount of a fairly typical bio-oil, while a purified lignin material was difficult to process in the fast pyrolysis reactors and produced a much lower amount of a different kind of bio-oil. It was concluded that for highly concentrated lignin feedstocks new reactor designs will be required other than the typical fluidized-bed fast pyrolysis systems.

Downdraft gasification of biomass

The objectives of this research were to investigate the parameters affecting the gasification process within downdraft gasifiers using biomass feedstocks. In addition to investigations with an open-core gasifier, a novel open-topped throated gasifier was designed and used. A sampling system was designed and installed to determine the water, tar and particular content of the raw product gas. This permitted evaluation of the effects of process parameters and reactor design on tar and particular production, although a large variation was found for the particulate measurements due to the capture of large particles. For both gasifiers, the gasification process was studied in order to identify and compare the mechanisms controlling the position and shape of the reaction zones. The stability of the reaction zone was found to be governed by the superficial gas velocity within the reactor. A superficial gas velocity below 0.2 Nms-1 resulted in a rising reaction zone in both gasifiers. Turndown is achieved when the rate of char production by flaming pyrolysis equals the rate of char gasification over a range of throughputs. A turndown ratio of 2:1 was achieved for the hybrid-throated gasifier, compared to 1.3:1 for the open-core. It is hypothesized that pyrolysis is a surface area phenomenon, and that in the hybrid gasifier the pyrolysis front can expand to form a dome-shape. The rate of char gasification is believed to increase as the depth of the gasification zone increases. Vibration of the open-core reactor bed decreased the bed pressure drop, reduced the voidage, aided solids flow and gave a minor improvement in the product gas energy content. Insulation improved the performance of both reactors by reducing heat losses resulting in a reduced air to feed ratio requirement. The hybrid gasifier gave a higher energy conversion efficiency, a higher product gas heating value, and a lower tar content than the open-core gasifier due to efficient gas mixing in a high temperature tar cracking region below the throat and reduced heat losses.

Bioreaction and separation in batch chromatographic columns

The objective of this work has been to study the behaviour and performance of a batch chromatographic column under simultaneous bioreaction and separation conditions for several carbohydrate feedstocks. Four bioreactions were chosen, namely the hydrolysis of sucrose to glucose and fructose using the enzyme invertase, the hydrolysis of inulin to fructose and glucose using inulinase, the hydrolysis of lactose to glucose and galactose using lactase and the isomerization of glucose to fructose using glucose isomerase. The chromatographic columns employed were jacketed glass columns ranging from 1 m to 2 m long and the internal diameter ranging from 0.97 cm to 1.97 cm. The stationary phase used was a cation exchange resin (PUROLITE PCR-833) in the Ca2+ form for the hydrolysis and the Mg2+ form for the isomerization reactions. The mobile phase used was a diluted enzyme solution which was continuously pumped through the chromatographic bed. The substrate was injected at the top of the bed as a pulse. The effect of the parameters pulse size, the amount of substrate solution introduced into the system corresponding to a percentage of the total empty column volume (% TECV), pulse concentration, eluent flowrate and the enzyme activity of the eluent were investigated. For the system sucrose-invertase complete conversions of substrate were achieved for pulse sizes and pulse concentrations of up to 20% TECV and 60% w/v, respectively. Products with purity above 90% were obtained. The enzyme consumption was 45% of the amount theoretically required to produce the same amount of product as in a conventional batch reactor. A value of 27 kg sucrose/m3 resin/h for the throughput of the system was achieved. The systematic investigation of the factors affecting the performance of the batch chromatographic bioreactor-separator was carried out by employing a factorial experimental procedure. The main factors affecting the performance of the system were the flowrate and enzyme activity. For the system inulin-inulinase total conversions were also obtained for pulses sizes of up to 20 % TECV and a pulse concentration of 10 % w/v. Fructose rich fractions with 100 % purity and representing up to 99.4 % of the total fructose generated were obtained with an enzyme consumption of 32 % of the amount theoretically required to produce the same amount of product in a conventional batch reactor. The hydrolysis of lactose by lactase was studied in the glass columns and also in an SCCR-S unit adapted for batch operation, in co-operation with Dr. Shieh, a fellow researcher in the Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry Department at Aston University. By operating at up to 30 % w/v lactose feed concentrations complete conversions were obtained and the purities of the products generated were above 90%. An enzyme consumption of 48 % of the amount theoretically required to produce the same amount of product in a conventional batch reactor was achieved. On working with the system glucose-glucose isomerase, which is a reversible reaction, the separation obtained with the stationary phase conditioned in the magnesium form was very poor although the conversion obtained was compatible with those for conventional batch reactors. By working with a mixed pulse of enzyme and substrate, up to 82.5 % of the fructose generated with a purity of 100 % was obtained. The mathematical modelling and computer simulation of the batch chromatographic bioreaction-separation has been performed on a personal computer. A finite difference method was used to solve the partial differential equations and the simulation results showed good agreement with the experimental results.

Prediction of Klason lignin and lignin thermal degradation products by Py-GC/MS in a collection of Lolium and Festuca grasses

A rapid method for the analysis of biomass feedstocks was established to identify the quality of the pyrolysis products likely to impact on bio-oil production. A total of 15 Lolium and Festuca grasses known to exhibit a range of Klason lignin contents were analysed by pyroprobe-GC/MS (Py-GC/MS) to determine the composition of the thermal degradation products of lignin. The identification of key marker compounds which are the derivatives of the three major lignin subunits (G, H, and S) allowed pyroprobe-GC/MS to be statistically correlated to the Klason lignin content of the biomass using the partial least-square method to produce a calibration model. Data from this multivariate modelling procedure was then applied to identify likely "key marker" ions representative of the lignin subunits from the mass spectral data. The combined total abundance of the identified key markers for the lignin subunits exhibited a linear relationship with the Klason lignin content. In addition the effect of alkali metal concentration on optimum pyrolysis characteristics was also examined. Washing of the grass samples removed approximately 70% of the metals and changed the characteristics of the thermal degradation process and products. Overall the data indicate that both the organic and inorganic specification of the biofuel impacts on the pyrolysis process and that pyroprobe-GC/MS is a suitable analytical technique to asses lignin composition. © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Estimation of the production cost of fast pyrolysis bio-oil

A number of papers and reports covering the techno-economic analysis of bio-oil production has been published. These have had different scopes, use different feedstocks and reflected national cost structures. This paper reviews and compares their cost estimates and the experimental results that underpin them. A comprehensive cost and performance model was produced based on consensus data from the previous studies or stated scenarios where data is not available that reflected UK costs. The model takes account sales of bio-char that is a co-product of pyrolysis and the electricity consumption of the pyrolysis plant and biomass pre-processing plants. It was concluded that it should be able to produce bio-oil in the UK from energy crops for a similar cost as distillate fuel oil. It was also found that there was little difference in the processing cost for woodchips and baled miscanthus. © 2011 Elsevier Ltd.

A techno-economic assessment of the use of fast pyrolysis bio-oil from UK energy crops in the production of electricity and combined heat and power

This thesis investigates the cost of electricity generation using bio-oil produced by the fast pyrolysis of UK energy crops. The study covers cost from the farm to the generator’s terminals. The use of short rotation coppice willow and miscanthus as feedstocks was investigated. All costs and performance data have been taken from published papers, reports or web sites. Generation technologies are compared at scales where they have proved economic burning other fuels, rather than at a given size. A pyrolysis yield model was developed for a bubbling fluidised bed fast pyrolysis reactor from published data to predict bio-oil yields and pyrolysis plant energy demands. Generation using diesel engines, gas turbines in open and combined cycle (CCGT) operation and steam cycle plants was considered. The use of bio-oil storage to allow the pyrolysis and generation plants to operate independently of each other was investigated. The option of using diesel generators and open cycle gas turbines for combined heat and power was examined. The possible cost reductions that could be expected through learning if the technology is widely implemented were considered. It was found that none of the systems analysed would be viable without subsidy, but with the current Renewable Obligation Scheme CCGT plants in the 200 to 350 MWe range, super-critical coal fired boilers co-fired with bio-oil, and groups of diesel engine based CHP schemes supplied by a central pyrolysis plant would be viable. It was found that the cost would reduce with implementation and the planting of more energy crops but some subsidy would still be needed to make the plants viable.

Production of renewable phenolic resins by thermochemical conversion of biomass: a review

This review covers the production and utilisation of liquids from the thermal processing of biomass and related materials to substitute for synthetic phenol and formaldehyde in phenol formaldehyde resins. These resins are primarily employed in the manufacture of wood panels such as plywood, MDF, particle-board and OSB. The most important thermal conversion methods for this purpose are fast pyrolysis and vacuum pyrolysis, pressure liquefaction and phenolysis. Many feedstocks have been tested for their suitability as sources of phenolics including hard and softwoods, bark and residual lignins. Resins have been prepared utilising either the whole liquid product, or a phenolics enriched fraction obtained after fractional condensation or further processing, such as solvent extraction. None of the phenolics production and fractionation techniques covered in this review are believed to allow substitution of 100% of the phenol content of the resin without impacting its effectiveness compared to commercial formulations based on petroleum derived phenol. This survey shows that considerable progress has been made towards reaching the goal of a price competitive renewable resin, but that further research is required to meet the twin challenges of low renewable resin cost and satisfactory quality requirements. Particular areas of concern are wood panel press times, variability of renewable resin properties, odour, lack of reactive sites compared to phenol and potential for increased emissions of volatile organic compounds.

Genotypic and environmentally derived variation in the cell wall composition of Miscanthus in relation to its use as a biomass feedstock

Fifteen Miscanthus genotypes grown in five locations across Europe were analysed to investigate the influence of genetic and environmental factors on cell wall composition. Chemometric techniques combining near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) and conventional chemical analyses were used to construct calibration models for determination of acid detergent lignin (ADL), acid detergent fibre (ADF), and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) from sample spectra. Results generated were subsequently converted to lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose content and used to assess the genetic and environmental variation in cell wall composition of Miscanthus and to identify genotypes which display quality traits suitable for exploitation in a range of energy conversion systems. The NIRS calibration models developed were found to predict concentrations with a good degree of accuracy based on the coefficient of determination (R2), standard error of calibration (SEC), and standard error of cross-validation (SECV) values. Across all sites mean lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose values in the winter harvest ranged from 76–115 g kg-1, 412–529 g kg-1, and 235–338 g kg-1 respectively. Overall, of the 15 genotypes Miscanthus x giganteus and Miscanthus sacchariflorus contained higher lignin and cellulose concentrations in the winter harvest. The degree of observed genotypic variation in cell wall composition indicates good potential for plant breeding and matching feedstocks to be optimised to different energy conversion processes.