Dopamine, empathy and the neurobiology of leadership

Objectives: Organisational Psychologists have long sought after methods by which to train individuals to become more effective leaders. Indeed considerable sums of money are spent on the design of such training programs. Yet it is not clear whether or not leadership skills can be taught or whether they are innate. Social leadership is a varied construct consisting of many diverse aspects, yet the ability to empathise with subordinates is a core skill that underpins effective transformational leadership. This type of leadership consists of four characteristics which are labelled ‘idealized influence’, ‘inspirational motivation’, ‘intellectual stimulation’ and ‘individualized consideration’. This is distinct from the transactional style of leadership, which is based on offering contingent rewards for completion of specific tasks. By identifying a specific gene that mediates distinct leadership traits, more effective training regimes can be designed. Design: There are two likely candidate genes that may mediate empathic leadership. The first is catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) which is involved with dopamine synthesis, and the second is the serotonin transporter promoter gene (5-HTTLPR). Both these genes mostly appear in the general population in their heterozygotic form. Thus by comparing phenotypes in leadership traits a measure of base line differences can be examined. Methods: 115 volunteers completed the Multifactor Leadership questionnaire (MLQ), which is a standard 12-item leadership psychometric scale and also underwent buccal swab for subsequent genotyping. Results: Of the 115 subjects 37 were heterozygotic for the COMT gene and 47 heterozygotic for 5-HTTLPR. Of the 12 MLQ subscales, the scores for two of the subscales only differed between the two participant groups. Individuals who were heterozygotic for the COMT gene scored higher on the ‘Inspirational motivation’ t(84)=1.99, p=0.05 and ‘Intellectual stimulation’ t(82)=1.94, p=0.05 scales compared to the carriers for the heterozygotic 5HTPP gene. Conclusions: Given that the behaviours described by these two MLQ subscales require leaders to empathise with subordinates, the current results suggest that dopamine may play a role in this important social task. The fact that both heterozygotic carriers for COMT and 5HTPP were compared allows a comparison to be made between the genotypes most prevalent in the general population.

Perceived quality of health care in macular disease:A survey of members of the Macular Disease Society

Aim: To investigate the experiences of people with macular disease within the British healthcare system. Method: The Macular Disease Society Questionnaire, a self completion questionnaire designed to survey the experiences of people with macular disease, was sent to 2000 randomly selected members of the Macular Disease Society. The questionnaire incorporated items about people's experiences with health professionals and the information and support provided by them at the time of diagnosis and thereafter. Results: Over 50% thought their consultant eye specialist was not interested in them as a person and 40% were dissatisfied with their diagnostic consultation. 185 people thought their general practitioner (GP) was well informed about macular disease but twice as many people thought their GP was not well informed. About an equal number of people thought their GP was supportive as those who thought their GP was not supportive. A total of 1247 people were told "nothing can be done to help with your macular disease." A number of negative emotional reactions were experienced by those people as a result, with 61% of them reporting feeling anxious or depressed. Of 282 people experiencing visual hallucinations after diagnosis with macular disease, only 20.9% were offered explanations for them. Concluslons: Many people with macular disease have unsatisfactory experiences of the healthcare system. Many of the reasons for dissatisfaction could be resolved by healthcare professionals if they were better informed about macular disease and had a better understanding of and empathy with patients' experiences.

Is gender a factor in perceived prison officer competence?

Background The introduction of women officers into HM Prison Service raised questions regarding women's ability to perform what had traditionally been a male role. Existing research is inconclusive as to whether female prison officers are as competent as male prison officers, and whether there are gender differences in job performance. This study examined prisoners' perceptions of male and female prison officers' performance. Hypotheses The hypotheses were that overall competence and professionalism ratings would not differ for men and women officers, but that there would be differences in how men and women were perceived to perform their roles. Women were expected to be rated as more communicative, more empathic and less disciplining. Method The Prison Officer Competency Rating Scale (PORS) was designed for this study. Ratings on the PORS for male and female officers were given by 57 adult male prisoners. Results There was no significant difference in prisoners' ratings of overall competence of men and women officers. Of the PORS subscales, there were no gender differences in Discipline and Control, Communication or Empathy, but there was a significant difference in Professionalism, where prisoners rated women as more professional. Conclusion The failure to find any differences between men and women in overall job competence, or on communication, empathy and discipline, as perceived by prisoners, suggests that men and women may be performing their jobs similarly in many respects. Women were rated as more professional, and items contributing to this scale related to respecting privacy and keeping calm in difficult situations, where there may be inherent gender biases. Copyright © 2005 Whurr Publishers Ltd.

An investigation of managerial skills:Implications for personnel policy

This research explores the conceptual basis in adopting a skills approach to management development. The literature reveals a number of development approaches but only a limited appreciation of how the manager does his job i.e. of the skills that he needs. An investigation of managerial skills was conducted with 10 manager s mainly occupying middle and senior positions. The principal source of evidence was the manager's thoughts on what he did and how he did it, although the interviews were supplemented by formal and informal observation. There was also a dialectic value from discussions with other analysts/managers and empathy between analyst and practitioner also played a part. Each manager was invited to comment upon his own skills analysis as a check upon validity. The study supports the view that the manager similar to other skilled practitioners, is conceptually a model builder and operationally a navigator (Singleton 1978b) . The manager variously holds enactive, pictorial, symbolic and hybrid models that enable him to understand his world and act in it. The universal managerial function is decision making and the study presents a preliminary nomenclature in classifying decision processes or perceptual skills. Managerial skills are also reflected in interpersonal interaction where the hallmark is mutual construction and attribution and in 'self-management’ where the requirement is to cope with the inner rather than the outer world. Differences between the managers are most evident in perceptual skills, the more senior manager requiring increasing ability to process abstract information and take account of environmental uncertainty. He will also make greater use of 'off- line’ information. The practical purpose in studying managerial skills is to facilitate the improvement of managerial performance and the implications of the research for training, selection and appraisal are explored.

Having a word with yourself:neural correlates of self-criticism and self-reassurance

Self-criticism is strongly correlated with a range of psychopathologies, such as depression, eating disorders and anxiety. In contrast, self-reassurance is inversely associated with such psychopathologies. Despite the importance of self-judgements and evaluations, little is known about the neurophysiology of these internal processes. The current study therefore used a novel fMRI task to investigate the neuronal correlates of self-criticism and self-reassurance. Participants were presented statements describing two types of scenario, with the instruction to either imagine being self-critical or self-reassuring in that situation. One scenario type focused on a personal setback, mistake or failure, which would elicit negative emotions, whilst the second was of a matched neutral event. Self-criticism was associated with activity in lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) regions and dorsal anterior cingulate (dAC), therefore linking self-critical thinking to error processing and resolution, and also behavioural inhibition. Self-reassurance was associated with left temporal pole and insula activation, suggesting that efforts to be self-reassuring engage similar regions to expressing compassion and empathy towards others. Additionally, we found a dorsal/ventral PFC divide between an individual's tendency to be self-critical or self-reassuring. Using multiple regression analyses, dorsolateral PFC activity was positively correlated with high levels of self-criticism (assessed via self-report measure), suggesting greater error processing and behavioural inhibition in such individuals. Ventrolateral PFC activity was positively correlated with high self-reassurance. Our findings may have implications for the neural basis of a range of mood disorders that are characterised by a preoccupation with personal mistakes and failures, and a self-critical response to such events.

Delivering optometric care in the UK

Optometrists play an important part in delivering eye care in the United Kingdom; however opportunities for practitioners to extend their role through co-management of patients with ophthalmologists vary across the country. Devolution in Scotland and Wales has led to greater emphasis on community based care in these regions. This thesis reviews the current situation and, by examining ophthalmic outpatient clinic data, discusses further opportunities to reduce demands on secondary care and the cost savings that can be made. To assess whether the profession is currently in a position to adopt an extended clinical role, changes in the availability of optometric instrumentation are assessed over a two year period. An increased prevalence of fundus cameras and contact tonometers places optometrists in a good position to take on further responsibilities in glaucoma management, however future investment could be impacted by the current economic climate as value for money became increasingly important to practitioners looking to purchase equipment. Methods of training optometrists in the necessary skills to utilise new technology to extend their role are evaluated in terms of both learning and cost effectiveness. Interactive distance learning is proposed as a convenient and effective method to deliver continuing professional development. Any changes to optometric practice must take account of the need for a sustainable business and the importance of attracting and retaining patients. The views of patients are assessed through a validated service quality questionnaire, SERVQUAL. The questionnaire is found to be valid for use in an optometry setting. Patients have a generally positive view of the service quality they receive from their optical practice and consider the intangible aspects, in particular responsiveness and empathy, most important. Optometrists are well placed to increase their role in patient management; however a viable business model must exist to enable investment in instrumentation and training.

Man, I feel like a woman:when and how gender-role motivation helps mind-reading

Two experiments were undertaken with 3 goals: (a) to determine whether manipulating the desirability of including empathy as part of one's gender-role identity motivates accurate mind-reading, (b) to ascertain whether target readability moderates the strength of this effect, and (c) to test whether these effects are mediated by the complexity of perceivers' inferential strategies. Participants viewed videotapes of 2 couples discussing relationship problems and attempted to infer each partner's thoughts and feelings. Both experiments demonstrated that motivation improved accuracy when male and female perceivers valued the empathy-relevant aspects of the traditional female gender role. However, as predicted, high levels of motivation facilitated the accurate reading of easy targets but not of difficult targets. Several mediational models were tested, the results of which showed that the complexity of perceivers' attributions mediated the link between motivation and mind-reading accuracy.

An overview of psychological and neurobiological mechanisms by which early negative experiences increase risk of mood disorders

Objective: Early life experiences are associated with severe and long-lasting effects on behavioural and emotional functioning, which in turn are thought to increase the risk for unipolar depression and other disorders of affect regulation. The neurobiological and psychological mechanisms through which adverse early life experiences confer risk are poorly understood. Method: Alterations in brain structure and function in limbic and prefrontal cortical regions have been linked to early negative experiences and to mood disorders. Results: There are a number of psychological domains that may be dysfunctional in people with mood disorders, and which, if the dysfunction occurs prior to onset of mood symptoms, may signify a risk factor for depression. Cognitive dysfunction has been examined in patients with mood disorders, with some suggestion that changes in cognitive function may antedate the onset of mood symptoms, and may be exacerbated in those who experienced early negative trauma. Social cognition, including emotion comprehension, theory of mind and empathy, represent under-studied domains of psychological function that may be negatively influenced by early adverse experience. Temperament and personality factors may also leave people vulnerable to mood instability. Conclusion: This review summarizes the evidence for dysfunction in each of these domains for people with mood disorders.

Non-thermal transitions in a model inspired by moral decisions

This work introduces a model in which agents of a network act upon one another according to three different kinds of moral decisions. These decisions are based on an increasing level of sophistication in the empathy capacity of the agent, a hierarchy which we name Piaget's ladder. The decision strategy of the agents is non-rational, in the sense they are arbitrarily fixed, and the model presents quenched disorder given by the distribution of its defining parameters. An analytical solution for this model is obtained in the large system limit as well as a leading order correction for finite-size systems which shows that typical realisations of the model develop a phase structure with both continuous and discontinuous non-thermal transitions.