Mach bands and multiscale models of spatial vision:the role of first, second, and third derivative operators in encoding bars and edges

Ernst Mach observed that light or dark bands could be seen at abrupt changes of luminance gradient in the absence of peaks or troughs in luminance. Many models of feature detection share the idea that bars, lines, and Mach bands are found at peaks and troughs in the output of even-symmetric spatial filters. Our experiments assessed the appearance of Mach bands (position and width) and the probability of seeing them on a novel set of generalized Gaussian edges. Mach band probability was mainly determined by the shape of the luminance profile and increased with the sharpness of its corners, controlled by a single parameter (n). Doubling or halving the size of the images had no significant effect. Variations in contrast (20%-80%) and duration (50-300 ms) had relatively minor effects. These results rule out the idea that Mach bands depend simply on the amplitude of the second derivative, but a multiscale model, based on Gaussian-smoothed first- and second-derivative filtering, can account accurately for the probability and perceived spatial layout of the bands. A key idea is that Mach band visibility depends on the ratio of second- to first-derivative responses at peaks in the second-derivative scale-space map. This ratio is approximately scale-invariant and increases with the sharpness of the corners of the luminance ramp, as observed. The edges of Mach bands pose a surprisingly difficult challenge for models of edge detection, but a nonlinear third-derivative operation is shown to predict the locations of Mach band edges strikingly well. Mach bands thus shed new light on the role of multiscale filtering systems in feature coding. © 2012 ARVO.

Blobs versus bars:psychophysical evidence supports two types of orientation response in human color vision

The classic hypothesis of Livingstone and Hubel (1984, 1987) proposed two types of color pathways in primate visual cortex based on recordings from single cells: a segregated, modularpathway that signals color but provides little information about shape or form and a second pathway that signals color differences and so defines forms without the need to specify their colors. A major problem has been to reconcile this neurophysiological hypothesis with the behavioral data. A wealth of psychophysical studies has demonstrated that color vision has orientation-tuned responses and little impairment on form related tasks, but these have not revealed any direct evidence for nonoriented mechanisms. Here we use a psychophysical method of subthreshold summation across orthogonal orientations for isoluminant red-green gratings in monocular and dichoptic viewing conditions to differentiate between nonoriented and orientation-tuned responses to color contrast. We reveal nonoriented color responses at low spatial frequencies (0.25-0.375 c/deg) under monocular conditions changing to orientation-tuned responses at higher spatial frequencies (1.5 c/deg) and under binocular conditions. We suggest that two distinct pathways coexist in color vision at the behavioral level, revealed at different spatial scales: one is isotropic, monocular, and best equipped for the representation of surface color, and the other is orientation-tuned, binocular, and selective for shape and form. This advances our understanding of the organization of the neural pathways involved in human color vision and provides a strong link between neurophysiological and behavioral data. © 2013 ARVO.

The vision strategy of golf putting

Golfers, coaches and researchers alike, have all keyed in on golf putting as an important aspect of overall golf performance. Of the three principle putting tasks (green reading, alignment and the putting action phase), the putting action phase has attracted the most attention from coaches, players and researchers alike. This phase includes the alignment of the club with the ball, the swing, and ball contact. A significant amount of research in this area has focused on measuring golfer’s vision strategies with eye tracking equipment. Unfortunately this research suffers from a number of shortcomings, which limit its usefulness. The purpose of this thesis was to address some of these shortcomings. The primary objective of this thesis was to re-evaluate golfer’s putting vision strategies using binocular eye tracking equipment and to define a new, optimal putting vision strategy which was associated with both higher skill and success. In order to facilitate this research, bespoke computer software was developed and validated, and new gaze behaviour criteria were defined. Additionally, the effects of training (habitual) and competition conditions on the putting vision strategy were examined, as was the effect of ocular dominance. Finally, methods for improving golfer’s binocular vision strategies are discussed, and a clinical plan for the optometric management of the golfer’s vision is presented. The clinical management plan includes the correction of fundamental aspects of golfers’ vision, including monocular refractive errors and binocular vision defects, as well as enhancement of their putting vision strategy, with the overall aim of improving performance on the golf course. This research has been undertaken in order to gain a better understanding of the human visual system and how it relates to the sport performance of golfers specifically. Ultimately, the analysis techniques and methods developed are applicable to the assessment of visual performance in all sports.

A socio-economic approach to online vision graph generation and handover in distributed smart camera networks

In this paper we propose an approach based on self-interested autonomous cameras, which exchange responsibility for tracking objects in a market mechanism, in order to maximise their own utility. A novel ant-colony inspired mechanism is used to grow the vision graph during runtime, which may then be used to optimise communication between cameras. The key benefits of our completely decentralised approach are on the one hand generating the vision graph online which permits the addition and removal cameras to the network during runtime and on the other hand relying only on local information, increasing the robustness of the system. Since our market-based approach does not rely on a priori topology information, the need for any multi-camera calibration can be avoided. © 2011 IEEE.

Sustainability, epistemology, ecocentric business and marketing strategy:ideology, reality and vision

This conceptual article examines the relationship between marketing and sustainability through the dual lenses of anthropocentric and ecocentric epistemology. Using the current anthropocentric epistemology and its associated dominant social paradigm, corporate ecological sustainability in commercial practice and business school research and teaching is difficult to achieve. However, adopting an ecocentric epistemology enables the development of an alternative business and marketing approach that places equal importance on nature, the planet, and ecological sustainability as the source of human and other species' well-being, as well as the source of all products and services. This article examines ecocentric, transformational business, and marketing strategies epistemologically, conceptually and practically and thereby proposes six ecocentric, transformational, strategic marketing universal premises as part of a vision of and solution to current global un-sustainability. Finally, this article outlines several opportunities for management practice and further research. © 2012 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht.

Myopia control with orthokeratology contact lenses in Spain:a comparison of vision-related quality-of-life measures between orthokeratology contact lenses and single-vision spectacles

Purpose: To compare vision-related quality-of-life measures between children wearing orthokeratology (OK) contact lenses and distance single-vision (SV) spectacles. Methods: Subjects 6 to 12 years of age and with myopia of -0.75 to -4.00 diopters and astigmatism less than or equal to 1.00 diopters were prospectively assigned OK contact lens or SV spectacle correction. A pediatric refractive error profile questionnaire was administered at 12- and 24-month intervals to evaluate children's perceptions in terms of overall vision, near vision, far distance vision, symptoms, appearance, satisfaction, activities, academic performance, handling, and peer perceptions. The mean score of all items was calculated as the overall score. Additionally, parents/guardians were asked to rate their child's mode of visual correction and their intention to continue treatment after study completion. Results: Thirty-one children were fitted with OK contact lenses and 30 with SV spectacles. Children wearing OK contact lenses rated overall vision, far distance vision, symptoms, appearance, satisfaction, activities, academic performance, handling, peer perceptions, and the overall score significantly better than children wearing SV spectacles (all P<0.05). Near vision and handling were, respectively, rated better (P<0.001) and similar (P=0.44) for SV spectacles in comparison to OK contact lenses. No significant differences were found between 12 and 24 months for any of the subjective ratings assessed (all P>0.05). Parents/guardians of children wearing OK contact lenses rated visual correction method and intention to continue treatment higher than parents of children wearing SV spectacles (P=0.01). Conclusion: The results indicate that the significant improvement in vision-related quality of life and acceptability with OK contact lenses is an incentive to engage in its use for the control of myopia in children.

Reading without central vision:effects of text spacing on reading in patients with macular disease

Abstract: Loss of central vision caused by age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a problem affecting increasingly large numbers of people within the ageing population. AMD is the leading cause of blindness in the developed world, with estimates of over 600,000 people affected in the UK . Central vision loss can be devastating for the sufferer, with vision loss impacting on the ability to carry out daily activities. In particular, inability to read is linked to higher rates of depression in AMD sufferers compared to age-matched controls. Methods to improve reading ability in the presence of central vision loss will help maintain independence and quality of life for those affected. Various attempts to improve reading with central vision loss have been made. Most textual manipulations, including font size, have led to only modest gains in reading speed. Previous experimental work and theoretical arguments on spatial integrative properties of the peripheral retina suggest that ‘visual crowding’ may be a major factor contributing to inefficient reading. Crowding refers to the phenomena in which juxtaposed targets viewed eccentrically may be difficult to identify. Manipulating text spacing of reading material may be a simple method that reduces crowding and benefits reading ability in macular disease patients. In this thesis the effect of textual manipulation on reading speed was investigated, firstly for normally sighted observers using eccentric viewing, and secondly for observers with central vision loss. Test stimuli mimicked normal reading conditions by using whole sentences that required normal saccadic eye movements and observer comprehension. Preliminary measures on normally-sighted observers (n = 2) used forced-choice procedures in conjunction with the method of constant stimuli. Psychometric functions relating the proportion of correct responses to exposure time were determined for text size, font type (Lucida Sans and Times New Roman) and text spacing, with threshold exposure time (75% correct responses) used as a measure of reading performance. The results of these initial measures were used to derive an appropriate search space, in terms of text spacing, for assessing reading performance in AMD patients. The main clinical measures were completed on a group of macular disease sufferers (n=24). Firstly, high and low contrast reading acuity and critical print size were measured using modified MNREAD test charts, and secondly, the effect of word and line spacing was investigated using a new test, designed specifically for this study, called the Equal Readability Passages (ERP) test. The results from normally-sighted observers were in close agreement with those from the group of macular disease sufferers. Results show that: (i) optimum reading performance was achieved when using both double line and double word spacing; (ii) the effect of line spacing was greater than the effect of word spacing (iii) a text size of approximately 0.85o is sufficiently large for reading at 5o eccentricity. In conclusion, the results suggest that crowding is detrimental to reading with peripheral vision, and its effects can be minimized with a modest increase in text spacing.

Astigmatism and vision:should all astigmatism always be corrected?

As technology and medical devices improve, there is much interest in when and how astigmatism should be corrected with refractive surgery. Astigmatism can be corrected by most forms of refractive surgery, such as using excimer lasers algorithms to ablate the cornea to compensate for the magnitude of refractive error in different meridians. Correction of astigmatism at the time of cataract surgery is well developed and can be achieved through incision placement, relaxing incisions and toric intraocular lens (IOL) implantation. This was less of an issue in the past when there was a lower expectation to be spectacle independent after cataract surgery, in which case the residual refractive error, including astigmatism, could be compensated for with spectacle lenses. The issue of whether presurgical astigmatism should be corrected can be considered separately depending on whether a patient has residual accommodation, and the type of refractive surgery under consideration. We have previously reported on the visual impact of full correction of astigmatism, rather than just correcting the mean spherical equivalent. Correction of astigmatism as low as 1.00 dioptres significantly improves objective and subjective measures of functional vision in prepresbyopes at distance and near.

The eye and vision:an overview

The eye is the major organ of vision and highly specialized for photoreception. It focusses light from an object onto the light-sensitive retina. Changes in specialized neurons in the retina result in nerve action potentials which are relayed to the brain via the optic nerve. Visual processing by the brain results in ‘visual perception’, the construction of a sensory image which is consciously appreciated as vision. All other structures of the eye are subsidiary to this function, either by facilitating focusing of light rays or by supporting the tissues of the eye. This chapter is an introduction to the various parts of the eye including the eyelids and associated structures, conjunctiva, cornea, sclera, iris, lens, vitreous body, retina, optic disc and nerve, and orbit. This chapter describes the functions of these various structures and their importance in achieving a visual image.

Ocular motor triad with single vision contact lenses compared to spectacle lenses

Aim: Theoretically myopes are required to exert more accommodation and vergence when wearing single vision contact lenses compared to glasses and hypermetropes less. This study aims to quantify the effects clinically. Method: Thirty subjects (21 female, nine male, average age 21.0 ± 2.2 years) with a range of refractive errors (-7.87 D to +3.50 D) viewed in a random order, static targets at 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0 and 5.0 D accommodative demand that were matched for angular subtense. The subjects were fully corrected with spectacles and daily disposable contact lenses to their full prescription. Accommodation was monitored objectively with the PowerRefractor and Shin-Nippon SRW5000 and vergence and pupil size with the PowerRefractor. Results: Myopes exerted greater accommodative effort for viewing near targets with contact lenses than glasses and hypermetropes less (r2 = 0.35, p = 0.001 PowerRefractor). Myopes also exerted greater vergence effort for viewing near targets with contact lenses than glasses and hypermetropes less (r2 = 0.22, p < 0.01). Conclusion: Theoretical calculation of the accommodative and vergence requirements with glasses compared to contact lenses reflect clinical findings, although there is reasonable variability between individuals. © 2006 British Contact Lens Association.

Surface roughness after excimer laser ablation using a PMMA model:profilometry and effects on vision

PURPOSE: To show that the limited quality of surfaces produced by one model of excimer laser systems can degrade visual performance with a polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) model. METHODS: A range of lenses of different powers was ablated in PMMA sheets using five DOS-based Nidek EC-5000 laser systems (Nidek Technologies, Gamagori, Japan) from different clinics. Surface quality was objectively assessed using profilometry. Contrast sensitivity and visual acuity were measured through the lenses when their powers were neutralized with suitable spectacle trial lenses. RESULTS: Average surface roughness was found to increase with lens power, roughness values being higher for negative lenses than for positive lenses. Losses in visual contrast sensitivity and acuity measured in two subjects were found to follow a similar pattern. Findings are similar to those previously published with other excimer laser systems. CONCLUSIONS: Levels of surface roughness produced by some laser systems may be sufficient to degrade visual performance under some circumstances.

Development and psychometric tests of the Chinese-version low vision quality of life questionnaire

Background/Aims: To develop and assess the psychometric validity of a Chinese language Vision Health related quality-of-life (VRQoL) measurement instrument for the Chinese visually impaired. Methods: The Low Vision Quality of Life Questionnaire (LVQOL) was translated and adapted into the Chinese-version Low Vision Quality of Life Questionnaire (CLVQOL). The CLVQOL was completed by 100 randomly selected people with low vision (primary group) and 100 people with normal vision (control group). Ninety-four participants from the primary group completed the CLVQOL a second time 2 weeks later (test-retest group). The internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, item-internal consistency, item-discrimination validity, construct validity and discriminatory power of the CLVQOL were calculated. Results: The review committee agreed that the CLVQOL replicated the meaning of the LVQOL and was sensitive to cultural differences. The Cronbach's α coefficient and the split-half coefficient for the four scales and total CLVQOL scales were 0.75-0.97. The test-retest reliability as estimated by the intraclass correlations coefficient was 0.69-0.95. Item-internal consistency was >0.4 and item-discrimination validity was generally <0.40. The Varimax rotation factor analysis of the CLVQOL identified four principal factors. the quality-of-life rating of four subscales and the total score of the CLVQOL of the primary group were lower than those of the Control group, both in hospital-based subjects and community-based subjects. Conclusion: The CLVQOL Chinese is a culturally specific vision-related quality-of-life measure instrument. It satisfies conventional psychometric criteria, discriminates visually healthy populations from low vision patients and may be valuable in screening the local community as well as for use in clinical practice or research. © Springer 2005.

Peripheral vision and pattern recognition:a review

We summarize the various strands of research on peripheral vision and relate them to theories of form perception. After a historical overview, we describe quantifications of the cortical magnification hypothesis, including an extension of Schwartz's cortical mapping function. The merits of this concept are considered across a wide range of psychophysical tasks, followed by a discussion of its limitations and the need for non-spatial scaling. We also review the eccentricity dependence of other low-level functions including reaction time, temporal resolution, and spatial summation, as well as perimetric methods. A central topic is then the recognition of characters in peripheral vision, both at low and high levels of contrast, and the impact of surrounding contours known as crowding. We demonstrate how Bouma's law, specifying the critical distance for the onset of crowding, can be stated in terms of the retinocortical mapping. The recognition of more complex stimuli, like textures, faces, and scenes, reveals a substantial impact of mid-level vision and cognitive factors. We further consider eccentricity-dependent limitations of learning, both at the level of perceptual learning and pattern category learning. Generic limitations of extrafoveal vision are observed for the latter in categorization tasks involving multiple stimulus classes. Finally, models of peripheral form vision are discussed. We report that peripheral vision is limited with regard to pattern categorization by a distinctly lower representational complexity and processing speed. Taken together, the limitations of cognitive processing in peripheral vision appear to be as significant as those imposed on low-level functions and by way of crowding.

A review of current knowledge on Electronic Vision Enhancement Systems for the visually impaired

Magnification can be provided to assist those with visual impairment to make the best use of remaining vision. Electronic transverse magnification of an object was first conceived for use in low vision in the late 1950s, but has developed slowly and is not extensively prescribed because of its relatively high cost and lack of portability. Electronic devices providing transverse magnification have been termed closed-circuit televisions (CCTVs) because of the direct cable link between the camera imaging system and monitor viewing system, but this description generally refers to surveillance devices and does not indicate the provision of features such as magnification and contrast enhancement. Therefore, the term Electronic Vision Enhancement Systems (EVES) is proposed to better distinguish and describe such devices. This paper reviews current knowledge on EVES for the visually impaired in terms of: classification; hardware and software (development of technology, magnification and field-of-view, contrast and image enhancement); user aspects (users and usage, reading speed and duration, and training); and potential future development of EVES. © 2003 The College of Optometrists.