The effectiveness of workplace coaching:A meta-analysis of learning and performance outcomes; scale development; theoretical model of individual differences and longitudinal study

The extant literature on workplace coaching is characterised by a lack of theoretical and empirical understanding regarding the effectiveness of coaching as a learning and development tool; the types of outcomes one can expect from coaching; the tools that can be used to measure coaching outcomes; the underlying processes that explain why and how coaching works and the factors that may impact on coaching effectiveness. This thesis sought to address these substantial gaps in the literature with three linked studies. Firstly, a meta-analysis of workplace coaching effectiveness (k = 17), synthesizing the existing research was presented. A framework of coaching outcomes was developed and utilised to code the studies. Analysis indicated that coaching had positive effects on all outcomes. Next, the framework of outcomes was utilised as the deductive start-point to the development of the scale measuring perceived coaching effectiveness. Utilising a multi-stage approach (n = 201), the analysis indicated that perceived coaching effectiveness may be organised into a six factor structure: career clarity; team performance; work well-being; performance; planning and organizing and personal effectiveness and adaptability. The final study was a longitudinal field experiment to test a theoretical model of individual differences and coaching effectiveness developed in this thesis. An organizational sample of 84 employees each participated in a coaching intervention, completed self-report surveys, and had their job performance rated by peers, direct reports and supervisors (a total of 352 employees provided data on participant performance). The results demonstrate that compared to a control group, the coaching intervention generated a number of positive outcomes. The analysis indicated that coachees’ enthusiasm, intellect and orderliness influenced the impact of coaching on outcomes. Mediation analysis suggested that mastery goal orientation, performance goal orientation and approach motivation in the form of behavioural activation system (BAS) drive, were significant mediators between personality and outcomes. Overall, the findings of this thesis make an original contribution to the understanding of the types of outcomes that can be expected from coaching, and the magnitude of impact coaching has on outcomes. The thesis also provides a tool for reliably measuring coaching effectiveness and a theoretical model to understand the influence of coachee individual differences on coaching outcomes.

Bridging difference - national and organisational adaptation for responsible performance

This special issue draws together a selection of articles built around a theme of bridging difference. We argue that the effective transfer of learning across boundaries is crucial in enabling the dissemination of good, and ethical, HR practice. How that transfer might occur, with respect both to the mechanisms to enable or inhibit transfer and to the nature of learning that underpins that transfer, provides the focus of what is discussed here. This is framed against a concern for the nature and future of HRM, in particular its role in ensuring responsible organisational performance. © 2013 Taylor & Francis.

Organisational learning, climate change and the tragedy of the commons in China

This paper ends with a brief discussion of climate change and suggests that a practical solution would be to transfer much of the current air, sea and long-haul trucking of intercontinental freight between China and Europe (and the USA) to maglev systems. First we review the potential of Asian knowledge management and organisational learning and contrast this against Western precepts finding that there seems to be little incentive to 'look after one's fellows' in China (and perhaps across Asia) outside of tight personal guanxi networks. This is likely to be the case in the intense production regions of China where little time is allowed for 'organisational learning' by the staff and there is little incentive to initiate 'knowledge management' by senior managers. Thus the 'tragedy of the commons' will be enacted by individuals, township, and provincial leaders upwards to top ministers - no one will care for the climate or pollution, only for their own group and their wealth creation prospects. Copyright © 2011 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Transients and asymptotics of natural gradient learning

We analyse natural gradient learning in a two-layer feed-forward neural network using a statistical mechanics framework which is appropriate for large input dimension. We find significant improvement over standard gradient descent in both the transient and asymptotic phases of learning.

Towards an inter-organisational knowledge transfer framework for SMEs

This paper aims to develop a framework for SMEs to help them understand, and thus to improve, the process of knowledge exchange with their customers or suppliers. Through a review of the literature on knowledge transfer, organisational learning, social network theory and electronic networks, the key actors, key factors and their relationships in the process are identified. Finally, a framework containing all above points is proposed.

Mapping teaching, learning and assessment in the MPharm in UK schools of pharmacy

Aim To undertake a national study of teaching, learning and assessment in UK schools of pharmacy. Design Triangulation of course documentation, 24 semi-structured interviews undertaken with 29 representatives from the schools and a survey of all final year students (n=1,847) in the 15 schools within the UK during 2003–04. Subjects and setting All established UK pharmacy schools and final year MPharm students. Outcome measures Data were combined and analysed under the topics of curriculum, teaching and learning, assessment, multi-professional teaching and learning, placement education and research projects. Results Professional accreditation was the main driver for curriculum design but links to preregistration training were poor. Curricula were consistent but offered little student choice. On average half the curriculum was science-based. Staff supported the science content but students less so. Courses were didactic but schools were experimenting with new methods of learning. Examinations were the principal form of assessment but the contribution of practice to the final degree ranged considerably (21–63%). Most students considered the assessment load to be about right but with too much emphasis upon knowledge. Assessment of professional competence was focused upon dispensing and pharmacy law. All schools undertook placement teaching in hospitals but there was little in community/primary care. There was little inter-professional education. Resources and logistics were the major limiters. Conclusions There is a need for an integrated review of the accreditation process for the MPharm and preregistration training and redefinition of professional competence at an undergraduate level.

Technology transfer to China:a study of strategy in 20 EU industrial companies

Foreign direct investment has been important in China's economic development since the early 1980s. In recent years, the volume of inward FDI into China, according to some estimates, has been second only to that into the USA. The Chinese government has emphasised the need for FDI to be coupled with the transfer of more advanced technologies to China. For foreign companies, technology transfer raises the risk of losing their technology based competitive advantage to potential competitor firms. This risk may be exacerbated by insufficient legal protection of intellectual property rights in China. After briefly reviewing the development of Chinese official policy on technology transfer, this paper considers the strategy adopted by EU companies regarding the transfer of technology; in particular in advanced technology sectors. The research on which the paper is based included an analysis of information gathered from 20 leading EU companies with investments in China and operating in high-technology sectors. Information was gathered from senior company managers based in both China and Europe during the second half of 1998. The main findings include a measure of reluctance on the part of EU companies to transfer their core technologies to China and to base R&D capability there. At the same time, the companies appear aware that this policy may be unsustainable in the longer-term in the face of Chinese official policy and a desire to expand their operations in China. While they attempt to protect their existing technological knowledge, most of them accept that there will be technology "leakage" and therefore the most effective strategy is to maintain their technological lead through R&D.

Mass transfer characteristics of two-aqueous-phase liquid-liquid mixtures

Mass transfer rates were studied using the falling drop method. Cibacron Blue 3 GA dye was the transferring solute from the salt phase to the PEG phase. Measurements were undertaken for several concentrations of the dye and the phase-forming solutes and with a range of different drop sizes, e.g. 2.8, 3.0 and 3.7 mm. The dye was observed to be present in the salt phase as finely dispersed solids but a model confirmed that the mass transfer process could still be described by an equation based upon the Whitman two-film model. The overall mass transfer coefficient increased with increasing concentration of the dye. The apparent mass transfer coefficient ranged from 1 x 10-5 to 2 x 10 -4 m/s. Further experiments suggested that mass transfer was enhanced at high concentration by several mechanisms. The dye was found to change the equilibrium composition of the two phases, leading to transfer of salt between the drop and continuous phases. It also lowered the interfacial tension (i.e. from 1.43 x 10-4 N/m for 0.01% w/w dye concentration to 1.07 x 10-4 N/m for 0.2% w/w dye concentration) between the two phases, which could have caused interfacial instabilities (Marangoni effects). The largest drops were deformable, which resulted in a significant increase in the mass transfer rate. Drop size distribution and Sauter mean drop diameter were studied on-line in a 1 litre agitated vessel using a laser diffraction technique. The effects of phase concentration, dispersed phase hold-up and impeller speed were investigated for the salt-PEG system. An increase in agitation speed in the range 300 rpm to 1000 rpm caused a decrease in mean drop diameter, e.g. from 50 m to 15 m. A characteristic bimodal drop size distribution was established within a very short time. An increase in agitation rate caused a shift of the larger drop size peak to a smaller size.

Mirror-image relations in category learning

The discrimination of patterns that are mirror-symmetric counterparts of each other is difficult and requires substantial training. We explored whether mirror-image discrimination during expertise acquisition is based on associative learning strategies or involves a representational shift towards configural pattern descriptions that permit resolution of symmetry relations. Subjects were trained to discriminate between sets of unfamiliar grey-level patterns in two conditions, which either required the separation of mirror images or not. Both groups were subsequently tested in a 4-class category-learning task employing the same set of stimuli. The results show that subjects who had successfully learned to discriminate between mirror-symmetric counterparts were distinctly faster in the categorization task, indicating a transfer of conceptual knowledge between the two tasks. Additional computer simulations suggest that the development of such symmetry concepts involves the construction of configural, protoholistic descriptions, in which positions of pattern parts are encoded relative to a spatial frame of reference.

Technology transfer to developing countries : the case of physical asset management in South Africa

This research investigates technology transfer (TT) to developing countries, with specific reference to South Africa. Particular attention is paid to physical asset management, which includes the maintenance of plant, equipment and facilities. The research is case based, comprising a main case study (the South African electricity utility, Eskom) and four mini-cases. A five level framework adapted from Salami and Reavill (1997) is used as the methodological basis for the formulation of the research questions. This deals with technology selection, and management issues including implementation and maintenance and evaluation and modifications. The findings suggest the Salami and Reavill (1997) framework is a useful guide for TT. The case organisations did not introduce technology for strategic advantage, but to achieve operational efficiencies through cost reduction, higher quality and the ability to meet customer demand. Acquirers favour standardised technologies with which they are familiar. Cost-benefit evaluations have limited use in technology acquisition decisions. Users rely on supplier expertise to compensate for poor education and technical training in South Africa. The impact of political and economic factors is more evident in Eskom than in the mini-cases. Physical asset management follows traditional preventive maintenance practices, with limited use of new maintenance management thinking. Few modifications of the technology or R&D innovations take place. Little use is made of explicit knowledge from computerised maintenance management systems. Low operating and maintenance skills are not conducive to the transfer of high-technology equipment. South African organisations acquire technology as items of plant, equipment and systems, but limited transfer of technology takes place. This suggests that operators and maintainers frequently do not understand the underlying technology, and like workers elsewhere, are not always inclined towards adopting technology in the workplace.

Moving from HRM to knowledge productivity:a study of whether and how organizations become learning organizations

Practitioners and academics are in broad agreement that, above all, organizations need to be able to learn, to innovate and to question existing ways of working. This thesis develops a model to take into account, firstly, what determines whether or not organizations endorse practices designed to facilitate learning. Secondly, the model evaluates the impact of such practices upon organizational outcomes, measured in terms of products and technological innovation. Researchers have noted that organizations that are committed to producing innovation show great resilience in dealing with adverse business conditions (e.g. Pavitt, 1991; Leonard Barton, 1998). In effect, such organizations bear many of the characteristics associated with the achievement of ‘learning organization’ status (Garvin, 1993; Pedler, Burgoyne & Boydell, 1999; Senge, 1990). Seven studies are presented to support this theoretical framework. The first empirical study explores the antecedents to effective learning. The three following studies present data to suggest that people management practices are highly significant in determining whether or not organizations are able to produce sustained innovation. The thesis goes on to explore the relationship between organizational-level job satisfaction, learning and innovation, and provides evidence to suggest that there is a strong, positive relationship between these variables. The final two chapters analyze learning and innovation within two similar manufacturing organizations. One manifests relatively low levels of innovation whilst the other is generally considered to be outstandingly innovative. I present the comparative framework for exploring the different approaches to learning manifested by the two organizations. The thesis concludes by assessing the extent to which the theoretical model presented in the second chapter is borne out by the findings of the study. Whilst this is a relatively new field of inquiry, findings reveal that organizations have a much stronger chance of producing sustained innovation where they manage people proactively where people process themselves to be satisfied at work. Few studies to date have presented empirical evidence to substantiate theoretical endorsements to engage in higher order learning, so this research makes an important contribution to existing literature in this field.

The development and evaluation of distance learning materials for administrative personnel in a multi-national company

There has been substantial research into the role of distance learning in education. Despite the rise in the popularity and practice of this form of learning in business, there has not been a parallel increase in the amount of research carried out in this field. An extensive investigation was conducted into the entire distance learning system of a multi-national company with particular emphasis on the design, implementation and evaluation of the materials. In addition, the performance and attitudes of trainees were examined. The results of a comparative study indicated that trainees using distance learning had significantly higher test scores than trainees using conventional face-to-face training. The influence of the previous distance learning experience, educational background and selected study environment of trainees was investigated. Trainees with previous experience of distance learning were more likely to complete the course and with significantly higher test scores than trainees with no previous experience. The more advanced the educational background of trainees, the greater the likelihood of their completing the course, although there was no significant difference in the test scores achieved. Trainees preferred to use the materials at home and those opting to study in this environment scored significantly higher than those studying in the office, the study room at work or in a combination of environments. The influence of learning styles (Kolb, 1976) was tested. The results indicated that the convergers had the greatest completion rates and scored significantly higher than trainees with the assimilator, accommodator and diverger learning styles. The attitudes of the trainees, supervisors and trainers were examined using questionnaire, interview and discussion techniques. The findings highlighted the potential problems of lack of awareness and low motivation which could prove to be major obstacles to the success of distance learning in business.

Transferring knowledge of manufacturing techniques within a subsidiary of a multi-national corporation

With the growth of the multi-national corporation (MNCs) has come the need to understand how parent companies transfer knowledge to, and manage the operations of, their subsidiaries. This is of particular interest to manufacturing companies transferring their operations overseas. Japanese companies in particular have been pioneering in the development of techniques such as Kaizen, and elements of the Toyota Production System (TPS) such as Kanban, which can be useful tools for transferring the ethos of Japanese manufacturing and maintaining quality and control in overseas subsidiaries. Much has been written about the process of transferring Japanese manufacturing techniques but much less is understood about how the subsidiaries themselves – which are required to make use of such techniques – actually acquire and incorporate them into their operations. This research therefore takes the perspective of the subsidiary in examining how knowledge of manufacturing techniques is transferred from the parent company within its surrounding (subsidiary). There is clearly a need to take a practice-based view to understanding how the local managers and operatives incorporate this knowledge into their working practices. A particularly relevant theme is how subsidiaries both replicate and adapt knowledge from parents and the circumstances in which replication or adaptation occurs. However, it is shown that there is a lack of research which takes an in-depth look at these processes from the perspective of the participants themselves. This is particularly important as much knowledge literature argues that knowledge is best viewed as enacted and learned in practice – and therefore transferred in person – rather than by the transfer of abstract and de-contextualised information. What is needed, therefore, is further research which makes an in-depth examination of what happens at the subsidiary level for this transfer process to occur. There is clearly a need to take a practice-based view to understanding how the local managers and operatives incorporate knowledge about manufacturing techniques into their working practices. In depth qualitative research was, therefore, conducted in the subsidiary of a Japanese multinational, Gambatte Corporation, involving three main manufacturing initiatives (or philosophies), namely 'TPS‘, 'TPM‘ and 'TS‘. The case data were derived from 52 in-depth interviews with project members, moderate-participant observations, and documentations and presented and analysed in episodes format. This study contributes to our understanding of knowledge transfer in relation to the approaches and circumstances of adaptation and replication of knowledge within the subsidiary, how the whole process is developed, and also how 'innovation‘ takes place. This study further understood that the process of knowledge transfer could be explained as a process of Reciprocal Provider-Learner Exchange that can be linked to the Experiential Learning Theory.

Learning to share knowledge in the Italian motorsport industry

The paper outlines a perspective on learning how to share knowledge in the context of inter-firm networks and highlights the essential role of participation in collaborative activities. This perspective suggests that knowledge sharing is not something achieved through the simple transfer of resources, but rather is an ongoing social accomplishment in which network firms constitute and re-constitute knowledge while engaging in collaborative activities. Empirical support for this view is offered by an in-depth and multiyear study of the development of collaborative relationships between a leading racing car manufacturer and its suppliers in the Italian motorsport industry. The study shows that knowledge is generated over time through the instigation of three knowledge sharing processes: the promotion of a culture of working together, co-location and the use of resident engineers, and shared education and training.

Editorial:knowledge flows, learning and development in an international context

In the editorial of this special issue we argue that knowledge flows, learning and development are becoming increasingly important in all organisations operating in an international context. The possession of capabilities relating to acquisition, configuration and transfer of relevant knowledge effectively within and across different organisational units, teams, and countries is integrally related to superior organisational performance. In mastering such capabilities, internationalised organisations need to grapple with the inherent challenges relating to contextual variation and different work modes between subsidiaries, partners or team members. The papers in this special issue cast light on crucial aspects of knowledge flows, learning and development in internationalised organisations. Their contribution varies from the provision of frameworks to systematise investigation of these issues, to empirical evidence about effective mechanisms, as well as enabling and constraining forces, in facilitating knowledge transfer, learning and human capital development. © 2012 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.