Isotropic compression of mixtures of hard and soft spheres

The compaction behaviour of powders with soft and hard components is of particular interest to the paint processing industry. Unfortunately, at the present time, very little is known about the internal mechanisms within such systems and therefore suitable tests are required to help in the interpretative process. The TRUBAL, Distinct Element Method (D.E.M.) program was the method of investigation used in this study. Steel (hard) and rubber (soft) particles were used in the randomly-generated, binary assemblies because they provided a sharp contrast in physical properties. For reasons of simplicity, isotropic compression of two-dimensional assemblies was also initially considered. The assemblies were first subject to quasi-static compaction, in order to define their behaviour under equilibrium conditions. The stress-strain behaviour of the assemblies under such conditions was found to be adequately described by a second-order polynomial expansion. The structural evolution of the simulation assemblies was also similar to that observed for real powder systems. Further simulation tests were carried out to investigate the effects of particle size on the compaction behaviour of the two-dimensional, binary assemblies. Later work focused on the quasi-static compaction behaviour of three-dimensional assemblies, because they represented more realistic particle systems. The compaction behaviour of the assemblies during the simulation experiments was considered in terms of percolation theory concepts, as well as more familiar macroscopic and microstructural parameters. Percolation theory, which is based on ideas from statistical physics, has been found to be useful in the interpretation of the mechanical behaviour of simple, elastic lattices. However, from the evidence of this study, percolation theory is also able to offer a useful insight into the compaction behaviour of more realistic particle assemblies.

Magneto-vibratory separation of glass and bronze granular mixtures immersed in a paramagnetic liquid

A fluid-immersed granular mixture may spontaneously separate when subjected to vertical vibration, separation occurring when the ratio of particle inertia to fluid drag is sufficiently different between the component species of the mixture. Here, we describe how fluid-driven separation is influenced by magneto-Archimedes buoyancy, the additional buoyancy force experienced by a body immersed in a paramagnetic fluid when a strong inhomogeneous magnetic field is applied. In our experiments glass and bronze mixtures immersed in paramagnetic aqueous solutions of MnCl2 have been subjected to sinusoidal vertical vibration. In the absence of a magnetic field the separation is similar to that observed when the interstitial fluid is water. However, at modest applied magnetic fields, magneto-Archimedes buoyancy may balance the inertia/fluid-drag separation mechanism, or it may dominate the separation process. We identify the vibratory and magnetic conditions for four granular configurations, each having distinctive granular convection. Abrupt transitions between these states occur at well-defined values of the magnetic and vibrational parameters. In order to gain insight into the dynamics of the separation process we use computer simulations based on solutions of the Navier-Stokes' equations. The simulations reproduce the experimental results revealing the important role of convection and gap formation in the stability of the different states.

Crack initiation in asphalt mixtures under external compressive loads

Crack initiation was studied for asphalt mixtures under external compressive loads. High tensile localized stresses e direction of the external loads. A quantitative crack initiation criterion the edges of compressed air voids lead to the growth of wing cracks in thon was derived using pseudostrain energy balance principle. Bond energy is determined and it increases with aging and loading rate while decreases with temperature. Cohesive and adhesive cracking occur simultaneously and a method was proposed to determine the individual percentage. The crack initiation criterion is simplified and validated through comparing the predicted and measured compressive strength of the asphalt mixtures.

Anisotropic characterization of crack growth in the tertiary flow of asphalt mixtures in compression

Asphalt mixtures exhibit primary, secondary, and tertiary stages in sequence during a rutting deterioration. Many field asphalt pavements are still in service even when the asphalt layer is in the tertiary stage, and rehabilitation is not performed until a significant amount of rutting accompanied by numerous macrocracks is observed. The objective of this study was to provide a mechanistic method to model the anisotropic cracking of the asphalt mixtures in compression during the tertiary stage of rutting. Laboratory tests including nondestructive and destructive tests were performed to obtain the viscoelastic and viscofracture properties of the asphalt mixtures. Each of the measured axial and radial total strains in the destructive tests were decomposed into elastic, plastic, viscoelastic, viscoplastic, and viscofracture strains using the pseudostrain method in an extended elastic-viscoelastic correspondence principle. The viscofracture strains are caused by the crack growth, which is primarily signaled by the increase of phase angle in the tertiary flow. The viscofracture properties are characterized using the anisotropic damage densities (i.e., the ratio of the lost area caused by cracks to the original total area in orthogonal directions). Using the decomposed axial and radial viscofracture strains, the axial and radial damage densities were determined by using a dissipated pseudostrain energy balance principle and a geometric analysis of the cracks, respectively. Anisotropic pseudo J-integral Paris' laws in terms of damage densities were used to characterize the evolution of the cracks in compression. The material constants in the Paris' law are determined and found to be highly correlated. These tests, analysis, and modeling were performed on different asphalt mixtures with two binders, two air void contents, and three aging periods. Consistent results were obtained; for instance, a stiffer asphalt mixture is demonstrated to have a higher modulus, a lower phase angle, a greater flow number, and a larger n1 value (exponent of Paris' law). The calculation of the orientation of cracks demonstrates that the asphalt mixture with 4% air voids has a brittle fracture and a splitting crack mode, whereas the asphalt mixture with 7% air voids tends to have a ductile fracture and a diagonal sliding crack mode. Cracks of the asphalt mixtures in compression are inclined to propagate along the direction of the external compressive load. © 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.

Mechanistic modeling of fracture in asphalt mixtures under compressive loading

When an asphalt mixture is subjected to a destructive compressive load, it experiences a sequence of three deformation stages, as follows: the (1) primary, (2) secondary, and (3) tertiary stages. Most literature research focuses on plastic deformation in the primary and secondary stages, such as prediction of the flow number, which is in fact the initiation of the tertiary stage. However, little research effort has been reported on the mechanistic modeling of the damage that occurs in the tertiary stage. The main objective of this paper is to provide a mechanistic characterizing method for the damage modeling of asphalt mixtures in the tertiary stage. The preliminary study conducted by the writers illustrates that deformation during the tertiary flow of the asphalt mixtures is principally caused by the formation and propagation of cracks, which was signaled by the increase of the phase angle in the tertiary phase. The strain caused by the growth of cracks is the viscofracture strain, which can be obtained by conducting the strain decomposition of the measured total strain in the destructive compressive test. The viscofracture strain is employed in the research reported in this paper to mechanistically characterize the time-dependent fracture (viscofracture) of asphalt mixtures in compression. By using the dissipated pseudostrain energy-balance principle, the damage density and true stress are determined and both are demonstrated to increase with load cycles in the tertiary stage. The increased true stress yields extra viscoplastic strain, which is the reason why the permanent deformation is accelerated by the occurrence of cracks. To characterize the evolution of the viscofracture in the asphalt mixtures in compression, a pseudo J-integral Paris' law in terms of damage density is proposed and the material constants in the Paris' law are determined, which can be employed to predict the fracture of asphalt mixtures in compression. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.

Characterizing permanent deformation and fracture of asphalt mixtures by using compressive dynamic modulus tests

Permanent deformation and fracture may develop simultaneously when an asphalt mixture is subjected to a compressive load. The objective of this research is to separate viscoplasticity and viscofracture from viscoelasticity so that the permanent deformation and fracture of the asphalt mixtures can be individually and accurately characterized without the influence of viscoelasticity. The undamaged properties of 16 asphalt mixtures that have two binder types, two air void contents, and two aging conditions are first obtained by conducting nondestructive creep tests and nondestructive dynamic modulus tests. Testing results are analyzed by using the linear viscoelastic theory in which the creep compliance and the relaxation modulus are modeled by the Prony model. The dynamic modulus and phase angle of the undamaged asphalt mixtures remained constant with the load cycles. The undamaged asphalt mixtures are then used to perform the destructive dynamic modulus tests in which the dynamic modulus and phase angle of the damaged asphalt mixtures vary with load cycles. This indicates plastic evolution and crack propagation. The growth of cracks is signaled principally by the increase of the phase angle, which occurs only in the tertiary stage. The measured total strain is successfully decomposed into elastic strain, viscoelastic strain, plastic strain, viscoplastic strain, and viscofracture strain by employing the pseudostrain concept and the extended elastic-viscoelastic correspondence principle. The separated viscoplastic strain uses a predictive model to characterize the permanent deformation. The separated viscofracture strain uses a fracture strain model to characterize the fracture of the asphalt mixtures in which the flow number is determined and a crack speed index is proposed. Comparisons of the 16 samples show that aged asphalt mixtures with a low air void content have a better performance, resisting permanent deformation and fracture. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.

Microstructure-based inherent anisotropy of asphalt mixtures

Asphalt mixtures have been demonstrated to be anisotropic materials in both laboratory and field tests. The anisotropy of asphalt mixtures consists of inherent anisotropy and stress-induced anisotropy. In previous work, the inherent anisotropy of asphalt mixtures was quantified by using only the inclination angles of the coarse aggregate particles in the asphalt mixtures. However, the inclination of fine aggregates also has a contribution to the inherent anisotropy. Moreover, the contribution to the inherent anisotropy of each aggregate may not be the same as in the previous work but will depend on the size, orientation, and sphericity of the aggregate particle. This paper quantifies the internal microstructure of the aggregates in asphalt mixtures by using an aggregate-related geometric parameter, the vector magnitude. The original formulation of the vector magnitude, which addresses only the orientation of coarse aggregates, is modified to account for not only the coarse aggregate orientation, but also the size, orientation, and sphericity of coarse and fine aggregates. This formulation is applied to cylindrical lab-mixed lab-compacted asphalt mixture specimens varying in asphalt binder type, air void content, and aging period. The vertical modulus and the horizontal modulus are also measured by using nondestructive tests. A relationship between the modified vector magnitude and the modulus ratio of the vertical modulus to the horizontal modulus is developed to quantify the influence of the inherent microstructure of the aggregates on the anisotropy of the mixtures. The modulus ratio is found to depend solely on the aggregate characteristics including the inclination angle, size, and sphericity, and it is independent of the asphalt binder type, air void content, and aging period. The inclination angle, itself, proves to be insufficient to quantify the inherent anisotropy of the asphalt mixtures. © 2011 American Society of Civil Engineers.

Anisotropic viscoelastic properties of undamaged asphalt mixtures

A test protocol and a data analysis method are developed in this paper on the basis of linear viscoelastic theory to characterize the anisotropic viscoelastic properties of undamaged asphalt mixtures. The test protocol includes three nondestructive tests: (1) uniaxial compressive creep test, (2) indirect tensile creep test, and (3) the uniaxial tensile creep test. All three tests are conducted on asphalt mixture specimens at three temperatures (10, 20, and 30°C) to determine the tensile and compressive properties at each temperature and then to construct the master curve of each property. The determined properties include magnitude and phase angle of the compressive complex modulus in the vertical direction, magnitude and phase angle of the tensile complex modulus, and the magnitude and phase angle of the compressive complex modulus in the horizontal plane. The test results indicate that all tested asphalt mixtures have significantly different tensile properties from compressive properties. The peak value of the master curve of the tensile complex modulus phase angle is within a range from 65 to 85°, whereas the peak value of the compressive moduli phase angle in both directions ranges from 35 to 55°. In addition, the undamaged asphalt mixtures exhibit distinctively anisotropic properties in compression. The magnitude of the compressive modulus in the vertical direction is approximately 1.2 to ̃2 times of the magnitude of the compressive modulus in the horizontal plane. Dynamic modulus tests are performed to verify the results of the proposed test protocol. The test results from the proposed test protocol match well with those from the dynamic tests. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.

A new creep test method for asphalt mixtures

A new creep test, Partial Triaxial Test (PTT), was developed to study the permanent deformation properties of asphalt mixtures. The PTT used two duplicate platens whose diameters were smaller than the diameter of the cylindrical asphalt mixtures specimen. One base platen was centrally placed under the specimen and another loading platen was centrally placed on the top surface of the specimen. Then the compressive repeated load was applied on the loading platen and the vertical deformation of the asphalt mixture was recorded in the PTTs. Triaxial repeated load permanent deformation tests (TRT) and PTTs were respectively conducted on AC20 and SMA13 asphalt mixtures at 40°C and 60°C so as to provide the parameters of the creep constitutive relations in the ABAQUS finite element models (FEMs) which were built to simulate the laboratory wheel tracking tests. The real laboratory wheel tracking tests were also conducted on AC20 and SMA13 asphalt mixtures at 40°C and 60°C. Then the calculated rutting depth from the FEMs were compared with the measured rutting depth of the laboratory wheeling tracking tests. Results indicated that PTT was able to characterize the permanent deformation of the asphalt mixtures in laboratory. The rutting depth calculated using the parameters estimated from PTTs' results was closer to and showed better matches with the measured rutting than the rutting depth calculated using the parameters estimated from TRTs' results. Main reason was that PTT could better simulate the changing confinement conditions of asphalt mixtures in the laboratory wheeling tracking tests than the TRT.

Defects in ZnO nanoparticles laser-ablated in water-ethanol mixtures at different pressures

The effect of liquid medium and its pressure on the photoluminescence of ZnO nanoparticles prepared via laser ablation of Zn targets in various water-ethanol mixtures is studied. As the ethanol content increases, the photoluminescence of the product changes, while metallic zinc is observed to emerge in nanomaterials prepared in ethanol-rich environments. The applied pressure had a less profound effect, mainly affecting materials produced in water or water-ethanol, and much less those generated in pressurized ethanol. Tuning the reactivity of the liquid and pressurizing it during laser ablation is demonstrated to be promising for tailoring the emission properties of the product.

Weak form equation–based finite-element modeling of viscoelastic asphalt mixtures

The objective of this study is to demonstrate using weak form partial differential equation (PDE) method for a finite-element (FE) modeling of a new constitutive relation without the need of user subroutine programming. The viscoelastic asphalt mixtures were modeled by the weak form PDE-based FE method as the examples in the paper. A solid-like generalized Maxwell model was used to represent the deforming mechanism of a viscoelastic material, the constitutive relations of which were derived and implemented in the weak form PDE module of Comsol Multiphysics, a commercial FE program. The weak form PDE modeling of viscoelasticity was verified by comparing Comsol and Abaqus simulations, which employed the same loading configurations and material property inputs in virtual laboratory test simulations. Both produced identical results in terms of axial and radial strain responses. The weak form PDE modeling of viscoelasticity was further validated by comparing the weak form PDE predictions with real laboratory test results of six types of asphalt mixtures with two air void contents and three aging periods. The viscoelastic material properties such as the coefficients of a Prony series model for the relaxation modulus were obtained by converting from the master curves of dynamic modulus and phase angle. Strain responses of compressive creep tests at three temperatures and cyclic load tests were predicted using the weak form PDE modeling and found to be comparable with the measurements of the real laboratory tests. It was demonstrated that the weak form PDE-based FE modeling can serve as an efficient method to implement new constitutive models and can free engineers from user subroutine programming.

Rutting-induced permeability loss of open graded friction course mixtures

Functionality of an open graded friction course (OGFC) depends on the high interconnected air voids or pores of the OGFC mixture. The authors' previous study indicated that the pores in the OGFC mixture were easily clogged by rutting deformation. Such a deformation-related clogging can cause a significant rutting-induced permeability loss in the OGFC mixture. The objective of this study was to control and reduce the rutting-induced permeability loss of the OGFC based on mixture design and layer thickness. Eight types of the OGFC mixtures with different air void contents, gradations, and nominal maximum aggregate sizes were fabricated in the laboratory. Wheel-tracking rutting tests were conducted on the OGFC slabs to simulate the deformation-related clogging. Permeability tests after different wheel load applications were performed on the rutted OGFC slabs using a falling head permeameter developed in the authors' previous study. The relationships between permeability loss and rutting depth as well as dynamic stability were developed based on the eight OGFC mixtures' test results. The thickness effects of the single-layer and the two-layer OGFC slabs were also discussed in terms of deformation-related clogging and the rutting-induced permeability loss. Results showed that the permeability coefficient decreases linearly with an increasing rutting depth of the OGFC mixtures. Rutting depth was recommended as a design index to control permeability loss of the OGFC mixture rather than the dynamic stability. Permeability loss due to deformation-related clogging can be effectively reduced by using a thicker single-layer OGFC or two-layer OGFC.

Effect of mixing sequence on the workability and performance of asphalt mixtures

In Sweden, during recent years, a new type of mixing protocol has been applied, in which the order of mixing is changed from the conventional method. Improved workability and diminished mixing and compaction energy needs have been important drivers for this. Considering that it is the mastic phase, which is modified by changing the mixing order, it provides an interesting case study for explaining the mechanisms of workability in connection with the mastic phase. To do so, an analytical viscosity framework was combined with a mixture morphology framework to upscale to the mixing level and tribology principles to explain the interaction between the mastic and the aggregates. From the mastic viscosity protocol, it was found that the mixing order significantly affects the resulting mastic viscosity. To analyse the effect of this on the workability and resulting mixture performance, X-ray computed tomography was used to analyse mixtures produced by the two different mixing sequences. Mechanical testing was utilised to determine the long-term mechanical performance. In this part of the study, mastic viscosity as a function of particle concentration and distribution was directly coupled to improved mixture workability and enhanced long-term performance.

Implementation of pseudo J-integral based Paris’ law for fatigue cracking in asphalt mixtures and pavements

Pavement analysis and design for fatigue cracking involves a number of practical problems like material assessment/screening and performance prediction. A mechanics-aided method can answer these questions with satisfactory accuracy in a convenient way when it is appropriately implemented. This paper presents two techniques to implement the pseudo J-integral based Paris’ law to evaluate and predict fatigue cracking in asphalt mixtures and pavements. The first technique, quasi-elastic simulation, provides a rational and appropriate reference modulus for the pseudo analysis (i.e., viscoelastic to elastic conversion) by making use of the widely used material property: dynamic modulus. The physical significance of the quasi-elastic simulation is clarified. Introduction of this technique facilitates the implementation of the fracture mechanics models as well as continuum damage mechanics models to characterize fatigue cracking in asphalt pavements. The second technique about modeling fracture coefficients of the pseudo J-integral based Paris’ law simplifies the prediction of fatigue cracking without performing fatigue tests. The developed prediction models for the fracture coefficients rely on readily available mixture design properties that directly affect the fatigue performance, including the relaxation modulus, air void content, asphalt binder content, and aggregate gradation. Sufficient data are collected to develop such prediction models and the R2 values are around 0.9. The presented case studies serve as examples to illustrate how the pseudo J-integral based Paris’ law predicts fatigue resistance of asphalt mixtures and assesses fatigue performance of asphalt pavements. Future applications include the estimation of fatigue life of asphalt mixtures/pavements through a distinct criterion that defines fatigue failure by its physical significance.