International technology transfer:perceptions and reality of quality and reliability

Impressions about product quality and reliability can depend as much on perceptions about brands and country of origin as on data regarding performance and failure. This has implications for companies in developing countries that need to compete with importers. For manufacturers in industrialised countries it has implications for the value of transferred technologies. This article considers the issue of quality and reliability when technology is transferred between countries with different levels of development. It is based on UK and Chinese company case studies and questionnaire surveys undertaken among three company groups: UK manufacturers; Chinese manufacturers; Chinese users. Results show that all three groups recognise quality and reliability as important and support the premise that foreign technology based machines made in China carry a price premium over Chinese machines based on local technology. Closer examination reveals a number of important differences concerning the perceptions and reality of quality and reliability between the groups.

UK epidemic strains of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in clinical samples from Malta

Since 1999, the European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System (EARSS) has monitored the rise in infection due to a number of organisms, including meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The EARSS reported that MRSA infections within intensive care units account for 25-50% of infections in many central and southern European countries, these included France, Spain, Great Britain, Malta, Greece and Italy. Each country has defined epidemic MRSA (EMRSA) strains; however, the method of spread of these strains from one country to another is unknown. In this current study, DNA profiles of 473 isolates of MRSA collected from the UK and Malta were determined by PFGE. Analysis of the data showed that two countries separated by a large geographical distance had a similar DNA profile pattern. Additionally it was demonstrated that strains of EMRSA normally found in the UK were also found in the Maltese cohort (EMRSA 15 and 16). A distinct DNA profile was found in the Maltese cohort, which may be a local EMRSA, and accounted for 14.4% of all Maltese isolates. The appearance of the same MRSA and EMRSA profiles in two separate countries suggests that MRSA can be transferred out of their country of origin and potentially establish in a new locality or country.

Low spatial frequencies are suppressively masked across spatial scale, orientation, field position, and eye of origin

Masking is said to occur when a mask stimulus interferes with the visibility of a target (test) stimulus. One widely held view of this process supposes interactions between mask and test mechanisms (cross-channel masking), and explicit models (e.g., J. M. Foley, 1994) have proposed that the interactions are inhibitory. Unlike a within-channel model, where masking involves the combination of mask and test stimulus within a single mechanism, this cross-channel inhibitory model predicts that the mask should attenuate the perceived contrast of a test stimulus. Another possibility is that masking is due to an increase in noise, in which case, perception of contrast should be unaffected once the signal exceeds detection threshold. We use circular patches and annuli of sine-wave grating in contrast detection and contrast matching experiments to test these hypotheses and investigate interactions across spatial frequency, orientation, field position, and eye of origin. In both types of experiments we found substantial effects of masking that can occur over a factor of 3 in spatial frequency, 45° in orientation, across different field positions and between different eyes. We found the effects to be greatest at the lowest test spatial frequency we used (0.46 c/deg), and when the mask and test differed in all four dimensions simultaneously. This is surprising in light of previous work where it was concluded that suppression from the surround was strictly monocular (C. Chubb, G. Sperling, & J. A. Solomon, 1989). The results confirm that above detection threshold, cross-channel masking involves contrast suppression and not (purely) mask-induced noise. We conclude that cross-channel masking can be a powerful phenomenon, particularly at low test spatial frequencies and when mask and test are presented to different eyes. © 2004 ARVO.

Is the clustering of neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's patients related to the cells of origin of specific cortico-cortical projections?

The spatial pattern of cellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) was studied in the supra- and infragranular layers of various cortical regions in cases of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The objective was to test the hypothesis that NFT formation was associated with the cells of origin of specific cortico-cortical projections. The novel feature of the study was that pattern analysis enabled the dimension and spacing of NFT clusters along the cortical ribbon to be estimated. In the majority of brain regions studied, NFT occurred in clusters of neurons which were regularly spaced along the cortical strip. This pattern is consistent with the predicted distribution of the cells of origin of specific cortico-cortico projections. Mean NFT cluster size varied from 250 to > 12800 microns in different cortical tissues suggesting either variation in the size of the cell clusters or a dynamic process in the development of NFT in relation to these cell clusters. The formation of NFT in cell clusters which may give rise to the feed-forward and feed-back cortico-cortical projections suggests a possible route of spread of NFT pathology in AD between cortical regions and from the cortex to subcortical areas.

Use of colour image analysis for assessment of fire damaged concrete

The aim of this project was to carry out a fundamental study to assess the potential of colour image analysis for use in investigations of fire damaged concrete. This involved:(a) Quantification (rather than purely visual assessment) of colour change as an indicator of the thermal history of concrete.(b) Quantification of the nature and intensity of crack development as an indication of the thermal history of concrete, supporting and in addition to, colour change observations.(c) Further understanding of changes in the physical and chemical properties of aggregate and mortar matrix after heating.(d) An indication of the relationship between cracking and non-destructive methods of testing e.g. UPV or Schmidt hammer. Results showed that colour image analysis could be used to quantify the colour changes found when concrete is heated. Development of red colour coincided with significant reduction in compressive strength. Such measurements may be used to determine the thermal history of concrete by providing information regarding the temperature distribution that existed at the height of a fire. The actual colours observed depended on the types of cement and aggregate that were used to make the concrete. With some aggregates it may be more appropriate to only analyse the mortar matrix. Petrographic techniques may also be used to determine the nature and density of cracks developing at elevated temperatures and values of crack density correlate well with measurements of residual compressive strength. Small differences in crack density were observed with different cements and aggregates, although good correlations were always found with the residual compressive strength. Taken together these two techniques can provide further useful information for the evaluation of fire damaged concrete. This is especially so since petrographic analysis can also provide information on the quality of the original concrete such as cement content and water / cement ratio. Concretes made with blended cements tended to produce small differences in physical and chemical properties compared to those made with unblended cements. There is some evidence to suggest that a coarsening of pore structure in blended cements may lead to onset of cracking at lower temperatures. The use of DTA/TGA was of little use in assessing the thermal history of concrete made with blended cements. Corner spalling and sloughing off, as observed in columns, was effectively reproduced in tests on small scale specimens and the crack distributions measured. Relationships between compressive strength/cracking and non-destructive methods of testing are discussed and an outline procedure for site investigations of fire damaged concrete is described.

Application of digital image processing techniques to the photometric testing of vehicle headlamps

The aim of this Interdisciplinary Higher Degrees project was the development of a high-speed method of photometrically testing vehicle headlamps, based on the use of image processing techniques, for Lucas Electrical Limited. Photometric testing involves measuring the illuminance produced by a lamp at certain points in its beam distribution. Headlamp performance is best represented by an iso-lux diagram, showing illuminance contours, produced from a two-dimensional array of data. Conventionally, the tens of thousands of measurements required are made using a single stationary photodetector and a two-dimensional mechanical scanning system which enables a lamp's horizontal and vertical orientation relative to the photodetector to be changed. Even using motorised scanning and computerised data-logging, the data acquisition time for a typical iso-lux test is about twenty minutes. A detailed study was made of the concept of using a video camera and a digital image processing system to scan and measure a lamp's beam without the need for the time-consuming mechanical movement. Although the concept was shown to be theoretically feasible, and a prototype system designed, it could not be implemented because of the technical limitations of commercially-available equipment. An alternative high-speed approach was developed, however, and a second prototype syqtem designed. The proposed arrangement again uses an image processing system, but in conjunction with a one-dimensional array of photodetectors and a one-dimensional mechanical scanning system in place of a video camera. This system can be implemented using commercially-available equipment and, although not entirely eliminating the need for mechanical movement, greatly reduces the amount required, resulting in a predicted data acquisiton time of about twenty seconds for a typical iso-lux test. As a consequence of the work undertaken, the company initiated an 80,000 programme to implement the system proposed by the author.

Optimising the clinical analysis of retinal image quality in the human eye

Visual perception is dependent on both light transmission through the eye and neuronal conduction through the visual pathway. Advances in clinical diagnostics and treatment modalities over recent years have increased the opportunities to improve the optical path and retinal image quality. Higher order aberrations and retinal straylight are two major factors that influence light transmission through the eye and ultimately, visual outcome. Recent technological advancements have brought these important factors into the clinical domain, however the potential applications of these tools and considerations regarding interpretation of data are much underestimated. The purpose of this thesis was to validate and optimise wavefront analysers and a new clinical tool for the objective evaluation of intraocular scatter. The application of these methods in a clinical setting involving a range of conditions was also explored. The work was divided into two principal sections: 1. Wavefront Aberrometry: optimisation, validation and clinical application The main findings of this work were: • Observer manipulation of the aberrometer increases variability by a factor of 3. • Ocular misalignment can profoundly affect reliability, notably for off-axis aberrations. • Aberrations measured with wavefront analysers using different principles are not interchangeable, with poor relationships and significant differences between values. • Instrument myopia of around 0.30D is induced when performing wavefront analysis in non-cyclopleged eyes; values can be as high as 3D, being higher as the baseline level of myopia decreases. Associated accommodation changes may result in relevant changes to the aberration profile, particularly with respect to spherical aberration. • Young adult healthy Caucasian eyes have significantly more spherical aberration than Asian eyes when matched for age, gender, axial length and refractive error. Axial length is significantly correlated with most components of the aberration profile. 2. Intraocular light scatter: Evaluation of subjective measures and validation and application of a new objective method utilising clinically derived wavefront patterns. The main findings of this work were: • Subjective measures of clinical straylight are highly repeatable. Three measurements are suggested as the optimum number for increased reliability. • Significant differences in straylight values were found for contact lenses designed for contrast enhancement compared to clear lenses of the same design and material specifications. Specifically, grey/green tints induced significantly higher values of retinal straylight. • Wavefront patterns from a commercial Hartmann-Shack device can be used to obtain objective measures of scatter and are well correlated with subjective straylight values. • Perceived retinal stray light was similar in groups of patients implanted with monofocal and multi focal intraocular lenses. Correlation between objective and subjective measurements of scatter is poor, possibly due to different illumination conditions between the testing procedures, or a neural component which may alter with age. Careful acquisition results in highly reproducible in vivo measures of higher order aberrations; however, data from different devices are not interchangeable which brings the accuracy of measurement into question. Objective measures of intraocular straylight can be derived from clinical aberrometry and may be of great diagnostic and management importance in the future.

Germany:a changing country of immigration

Despite being one of Europe's most significant destinations for migration, Germany has long wrestled with the notion that it may or may not be a 'country of immigration'. Approaching this question from a positive rather than a normative perspective, this article explores how Germany is changing in this respect, by examining changes over the past two decades in terms of migration flows, the policy framework and the degree of societal and institutional adaptation to migration. It argues that Germany has become much more diverse and also notes the major policy developments that have taken place after the change of government in 1998. While the dominant theme of migration policy has moved on from prevention to integration, Germany's impending demographic transformation poses a major new challenge, which will require governments to look once again to more active recruitment of labour migration. © 2013 Association for the Study of German Politics.

the effect of television image degradation on learning

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Sensitivity and reliability of objective image analysis compared to subjective grading of bulbar hyperaemia

Aims: To establish the sensitivity and reliability of objective image analysis in direct comparison with subjective grading of bulbar hyperaemia. Methods: Images of the same eyes were captured with a range of bulbar hyperaemia caused by vasodilation. The progression was recorded and 45 images extracted. The images were objectively analysed on 14 occasions using previously validated edge-detection and colour-extraction techniques. They were also graded by 14 eye-care practitioners (ECPs) and 14 non-clinicians (NCb) using the Efron scale. Six ECPs repeated the grading on three separate occasions Results: Subjective grading was only able to differentiate images with differences in grade of 0.70-1.03 Efron units (sensitivity of 0.30-0.53), compared to 0,02-0.09 Efron units with objective techniques (sensitivity of 0.94-0.99). Significant differences were found between ECPs and individual repeats were also inconsistent (p<0.001). Objective analysis was 16x more reliable than subjective analysis. The NCLs used wider ranges of the scale but were more variable than ECPs, implying that training may have an effect on grading. Conclusions: Objective analysis may offer a new gold standard in anterior ocular examination, and should be developed further as a clinical research tool to allow more highly powered analysis, and to enhance the clinical monitoring of anterior eye disease.

The effect of digital image resolution and compression on anterior eye imaging

Aim: To determine the theoretical and clinical minimum image pixel resolution and maximum compression appropriate for anterior eye image storage. Methods: Clinical images of the bulbar conjunctiva, palpebral conjunctiva, and corneal staining were taken at the maximum resolution of Nikon:CoolPix990 (2048 × 1360 pixels), DVC:1312C (1280 × 811), and JAI:CV-S3200 (767 × 569) single chip cameras and the JVC:KYF58 (767 × 569) three chip camera. The images were stored in TIFF format and further copies created with reduced resolution or compressed. The images were then ranked for clarity on a 15 inch monitor (resolution 1280 × 1024) by 20 optometrists and analysed by objective image analysis grading. Theoretical calculation of the resolution necessary to detect the smallest objects of clinical interest was also conducted. Results: Theoretical calculation suggested that the minimum resolution should be ≥579 horizontal pixels at 25 × magnification. Image quality was perceived subjectively as being reduced when the pixel resolution was lower than 767 × 569 (p<0.005) or the image was compressed as a BMP or <50% quality JPEG (p<0.005). Objective image analysis techniques were less susceptible to changes in image quality, particularly when using colour extraction techniques. Conclusion: It is appropriate to store anterior eye images at between 1280 × 811 and 767 × 569 pixel resolution and at up to 1:70 JPEG compression.

A comparison of international HRM practices by Indian and European MNEs:evidence from Africa

By comparing the HRM practices in Indian and European MNE subsidiaries located in four of the Southern African Development Community countries, this paper tests the relevance of the country-of-origin effect and analyses the strength of institutional and firm-level influences. Examining data from 865 MNE subsidiaries obtained from the World Bank enterprise survey data, the paper finds that Indian MNEs have higher labour costs in relation to total sales than their European counterparts, that Indian MNEs make more use of temporary labour than their European counterparts, that Indian MNEs invest in less training than their European counterparts. No support is found for the hypothesis that Indian MNEs have a lower ratio of skilled workers in comparison to European-owned subsidiaries. The study shows that country-of-origin effects are weakened if they are not consistent with host country ideology and that as economies evolve so too do their expectations of HR policy and practices. © 2014 © 2014 Taylor & Francis.

Manoeuvring towards research decline:the RAE and the decline of Britain's international research standing

Purpose: This research paper aims to examine the global trends in publishing in the leading marketing journals between 1964 and 2008, focusing on how public policy intervention in the assessment and funding of academic research has influenced Britain's relative productivity in the world's leading marketing journals. Design/methodology/approach: The method was an audit of contributions to the leading journals based on the authors' affiliation, country of origin and country in which they obtained their doctoral training. Findings: The results show that the proportion of leading marketing publications by authors affiliated to British universities have held steady at about 2 per cent, while the productivity of several other countries has accelerated past Britain. However, to retain that share, Britain has increasingly depended upon importing people whose PhD is not British. This contrasts with some other European countries that are now more productive than Britain, but mainly recruit locals with local PhDs. The pattern of decline in the UK is related to the impact of Britain's research assessment exercise and the continuation of relatively weak social science research training. Research limitations/implications: The analysis is limited by only looking at one academic discipline and only the top few academic journals in the field. Practical implications: The findings have implications at several levels. At a national policy level it questions the value of the research assessment exercises that appear to have presided over a decline in research productivity. For institutions, it questions the value in investing in developing local talent when success has come to those who buy talent internationally. Perhaps, the major implication arises from Britain's academic productivity declining while neighbouring countries have grown in international excellence. Originality/value: At a time when the continuation of expensive university research assessments is being questioned the research findings add value to the current debate in showing how that very process has accompanied academic decline. © Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Perception of global image contrast is predicted by the same spatial integration model of gain control as detection and discrimination

How are the image statistics of global image contrast computed? We answered this by using a contrast-matching task for checkerboard configurations of ‘battenberg’ micro-patterns where the contrasts and spatial spreads of interdigitated pairs of micro-patterns were adjusted independently. Test stimuli were 20 × 20 arrays with various sized cluster widths, matched to standard patterns of uniform contrast. When one of the test patterns contained a pattern with much higher contrast than the other, that determined global pattern contrast, as in a max() operation. Crucially, however, the full matching functions had a curious intermediate region where low contrast additions for one pattern to intermediate contrasts of the other caused a paradoxical reduction in perceived global contrast. None of the following models predicted this: RMS, energy, linear sum, max, Legge and Foley. However, a gain control model incorporating wide-field integration and suppression of nonlinear contrast responses predicted the results with no free parameters. This model was derived from experiments on summation of contrast at threshold, and masking and summation effects in dipper functions. Those experiments were also inconsistent with the failed models above. Thus, we conclude that our contrast gain control model (Meese & Summers, 2007) describes a fundamental operation in human contrast vision.

Further evidence for a parent-of-origin effect at the NOP9 locus on language-related phenotypes

Background - Specific language impairment (SLI) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder, observed in 5–10 % of children. Family and twin studies suggest a strong genetic component, but relatively few candidate genes have been reported to date. A recent genome-wide association study (GWAS) described the first statistically significant association specifically for a SLI cohort between a missense variant (rs4280164) in the NOP9 gene and language-related phenotypes under a parent-of-origin model. Replications of these findings are particularly challenging because the availability of parental DNA is required. Methods - We used two independent family-based cohorts characterised with reading- and language-related traits: a longitudinal cohort (n = 106 informative families) including children with language and reading difficulties and a nuclear family cohort (n = 264 families) selected for dyslexia. Results - We observed association with language-related measures when modelling for parent-of-origin effects at the NOP9 locus in both cohorts: minimum P = 0.001 for phonological awareness with a paternal effect in the first cohort and minimum P = 0.0004 for irregular word reading with a maternal effect in the second cohort. Allelic and parental trends were not consistent when compared to the original study. Conclusions - A parent-of-origin effect at this locus was detected in both cohorts, albeit with different trends. These findings contribute in interpreting the original GWAS report and support further investigations of the NOP9 locus and its role in language-related traits. A systematic evaluation of parent-of-origin effects in genetic association studies has the potential to reveal novel mechanisms underlying complex traits.