Mid-to Late Holocene flood frequency in the northeastern Alps as recorded in varved sediments of Lake Mondsee

Annually laminated (varved) lake sediments with intercalated detrital layers resulting from sedimentary input by runoff events are ideal archives to establish precisely dated records of past extreme runoff events. In this study, the mid- to late Holocene varved sediments of Lake Mondsee (Upper Austria) were analysed by combining sedimentological, geophysical and geochemical methods. This approach allows to distinguish two types of detrital layers related to different types of extreme runoff events (floods and debris flows) and to detect changes in flood activity during the last 7100 years. In total, 271 flood and 47 debris flow layers, deposited during spring and summer, were identified, which cluster in 18 main flood episodes (FE 1-18) with durations of 30-50 years each. These main flood periods occurred during the Late Neolithic (7100-7050 vyr BP and 6470-4450 vyr BP), the late Bronze Age and the early Iron Age (3300-3250 and 2800-2750 vyr BP), the late Iron Age (2050-2000 vyr BP), throughout the Dark Ages Cold Period (1500-1200 vyr BP), and at the end of the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age (810-430 vyr BP). Summer flood episodes in Lake Mondsee are generally more abundant during the last 1500 years, often coinciding with major advances of alpine glaciers. Prior to 1500 vyr BP, spring/summer floods and debris flows are generally less frequent, indicating a lower number of intense rainfall events that triggered erosion. In comparison with the increase of late Holocene flood activity in western and northwestern (NW) Europe, commencing already as early as 2800 yr BP, the hydro-meteorological shift in the Lake Mondsee region occurred much later. These time lags in the onset of increased hydrological activity might be either due to regional differences in atmospheric circulation pattern or to the sensitivity of the individual flood archives. The Lake Mondsee sediments represent the first precisely dated and several millennia long summer flood record for the northeastern (NE) Alps, a key region at the climatic boundary of Atlantic, Mediterranean and East European air masses aiding a better understanding of regional and seasonal peculiarities of flood occurrence under changing climate conditions.

Grain-size distributions of the terrigenous fraction of two deep-sea sediment cores GeoB3375-1 and MD96-2094

In this study, we present grain-size distributions of the terrigenous fraction of two deep-sea sediment cores from the SE Atlantic (offshore Namibia) and from the SE Pacific (offshore northern Chile), which we 'unmix' into subpopulations and which are interpreted as coarse eolian dust, fine eolian dust, and fluvial mud. The downcore ratios of the proportions of eolian dust and fluvial mud subsequently represent paleocontinental aridity records of southwestern Africa and northern Chile for the last 120,000 yr. The two records show a relatively wet Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) compared to a relatively dry Holocene, but different orbital variability on longer time scales. Generally, the northern Chilean aridity record shows higher-frequency changes, which are closely related to precessional variation in solar insolation, compared to the southwestern African aridity record, which shows a remarkable resemblance to the global ice-volume record. We relate the changes in continental aridity in southwestern Africa and northern Chile to changes in the latitudinal position of the moisture-bearing Southern Westerlies, potentially driven by the sea-ice extent around Antarctica and overprinted by tropical forcing in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.

Pliocene to Pleistocene calcium carbonate and organic carbon record of ODP Hole 117-722B

Site 722 provides high resolution records of percent CaCO3, magnetic susceptibility, d18O, organic carbon, and coarse fraction for the past 3.4 m.y. from the crest of the Owen Ridge, northwestern Arabian Sea. Within this time interval, most of the carbonate percent variations can be attributed to terrigenous dilution and do not reflect changes in the carbonate system. From the late Pliocene to Present, the average rate of calcium carbonate accumulation increases from 1 to 3 g/cm**2/k.y. and the average accumulation of organic carbon decreases from 75 to 30 mg/cm**2/k.y. The carbonate component is more dissolved in the older interval. The long-term variations in carbonate accumulation may reflect a greater input of organic matter in the late Pliocene, which decomposes to produce CO2 and dissolve carbonate. Magnetic susceptibility and % noncarbonate (100 - CaCO3%) reflect changes in the amount of the lithogenic component in the sediments. The period of variation of lithogenic material is the same period as the original forcing of the regional summer monsoon, however, the timing matches global aridity patterns and global ice volume (sea level) changes. This preliminary analysis suggests that the high frequency variation of lithogenic material persists for at least the last 3.4 m.y. Within the last million years, calcium carbonate accumulation has a large amplitude signal that covaries with major changes in ice volume. Both calcium carbonate and noncarbonate (mostly terrigenous) accumulation are greatest during glacial stages. Interglacial intervals are characterized by low mass accumulation rates, increased foraminifer fragmentation, and increased opal concentration. The accumulation of organic carbon matches the high frequency changes in sedimentation rates. We attribute this high correlation to enhanced preservation of organic carbon by increased sedimentation rate. Of the three major biological components studied, only opal exhibits the variations expected for a biological productivity system forced by monsoonal upwelling driven by changes in northern hemisphere summer radiation.

Pollen record from sediment core M77/2_056-3 (Bay of Guayaquil, Peru)

We analyzed the pollen content of a marine core located near the bay of Guayaquil in Ecuador to document the link between sea surface temperatures (SST) and changes in rainfall regimes on the adjacent continent during the Holocene. Based on the expansion/regression of five vegetation types, we observe three successive climatic patterns. In the first phase, between 11,700 and 7700 cal yr BP, the presence of a cloud (Andean) forest in the mid altitudes and mangroves in the estuary of the Guayas Basin, were associated with a maximum in boreal summer insolation, a northernmost position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a land- sea thermal contrast, and dryness. Between 7700 and 2850 cal yr BP, the expansion of the coastal herbs and the regression of the mangrove indicate a drier climate with weak ITCZ and low ENSO variability while austral winter insolation gradually increased. The interval between 4200 and 2850 cal yr BP was marked by the coolest and driest climatic conditions of the Holocene due to the weak influence of the ITCZ and a strengthening of the Humboldt Current. After 2850 cal yr BP, high variability and amplitude of the Andean forest changes occurred when ENSO frequency and amplitude increased, indicating high variability in land-sea connections. The ITCZ reached the latitude of Guayaquil only after 2500 cal yr BP inducing the bimodal precipitation regime we observe today. Our study shows that besides insolation, the ITCZ position and ENSO frequency, changes in eastern equatorial Pacific SSTs play a major role in determining the composition of the ecosystems and the hydrological cycle of the Ecuadorian Pacific coast and the Western Cordillera in Ecuador.

(Table T1) Clay-mineral composition of ODP Site 184-1146 sediments

The preliminary results of a comprehensive study of clay minerals (<2 µm) are presented for the upper 2 m.y. of sediments from Ocean Drilling Program Leg 184 Site 1146 from the northern margin of the South China Sea, close to the Pearl River mouth. More than 500 samples were analyzed, and four main mineral species are present: smectite, illite, chlorite, and kaolinite. On a general basis, illite + chlorite and smectite display anti-correlated behavior in relation to changes in the proportion of primary to secondary minerals in the sediment. Low-frequency and high-frequency changes are observed in the smectite/(illite + chlorite) ratio.

Distribution of Uvigerina proboscidea in Late Neogene sediments of DSDP Hole 22-214 in the northern Indian Ocean (Table 1)

This study attempts to understand the significance of Uvigerina proboscidea in paleoceanographic reconstructions at the northern (tropical) Indian Ocean DSDP Site 214 from the Late Miocene through the Pleistocene. In this interval at this site, U. proboscidea is the most abundant species of the benthic assemblage and shows abrupt frequency changes (about 1-74%). Based on relative percentages of U. proboscidea calibrated with oxygen and carbon isotope record and the sediment accumulation rates, the modern distribution of the species in the Indian Ocean, and other evidence, the peaks of abundance of U. proboscidea are inferred to represent times of high-surface productivity, This productivity is related to intensified trade winds during strong southwest (SW) Indian monsoons, causing widespread upwelling along equatorial divergemce in the Indian Ocean. The sudden increase of U. proboscidea abundance at approximately 8.5-7.5 Ma reflects significant upwelling at the equatorial divergence. This event corresponds to the permanent build-up of West Antarctic ice sheets, and a major increase in SW Indian monsoons related upwelling in the northwestern Indian Ocean. The Chron-6 carbon shift at approximately 6.2 Ma is marked by another peak of abundance, reflecting widespread ocean fertility. The highest abundances of U. proboscidea and highest sediment accumulation rates occur between 5.8 and 5.1 Ma, which coincidies with the greatest development of Antarctic ice sheets and strong southwest monsoons. The higher percentages at 3.2-3.1 Ma, approximately 2.4 Ma, and 1.6 Ma all represent phases of high productivity at the equatorial divergence.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and biological processes of Sepia officinalis during experiments, 2010

Acidification of ocean surface waters by anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is a currently developing scenario that warrants a broadening of research foci in the study of acid-base physiology. Recent studies working with environmentally relevant CO2 levels, indicate that some echinoderms and molluscs reduce metabolic rates, soft tissue growth and calcification during hypercapnic exposure. In contrast to all prior invertebrate species studied so far, growth trials with the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis found no indication of reduced growth or calcification performance during long-term exposure to 0.6 kPa CO2. It is hypothesized that the differing sensitivities to elevated seawater pCO2 could be explained by taxa specific differences in acid-base regulatory capacity. In this study, we examined the acid-base regulatory ability of S. officinalis in vivo, using a specially modified cannulation technique as well as 31P NMR spectroscopy. During acute exposure to 0.6 kPa CO2, S. officinalis rapidly increased its blood [HCO3] to 10.4 mM through active ion-transport processes, and partially compensated the hypercapnia induced respiratory acidosis. A minor decrease in intracellular pH (pHi) and stable intracellular phosphagen levels indicated efficient pHi regulation. We conclude that S. officinalis is not only an efficient acid-base regulator, but is also able to do so without disturbing metabolic equilibria in characteristic tissues or compromising aerobic capacities. The cuttlefish did not exhibit acute intolerance to hypercapnia that has been hypothesized for more active cephalopod species (squid). Even though blood pH (pHe) remained 0.18 pH units below control values, arterial O2 saturation was not compromised in S. officinalis because of the comparatively lower pH sensitivity of oxygen binding to its blood pigment. This raises questions concerning the potentially broad range of sensitivity to changes in acid-base status amongst invertebrates, as well as to the underlying mechanistic origins. Further studies are needed to better characterize the connection between acid-base status and animal fitness in various marine species.

Dive depth frequency of 23 adult male southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) from Marion Island and King George Island

Access to different environments may lead to inter-population behavioural changes within a species that allow populations to exploit their immediate environments. Elephant seals from Marion Island (MI) and King George Island (KGI) (Isla 25 de Mayo) forage in different oceanic environments and evidently employ different foraging strategies. This study elucidates some of the factors influencing the diving behaviour of male southern elephant seals from these populations tracked between 1999 and 2002. Mixed-effects models were used to determine the influence of bathymetry, population of origin, body length (as a proxy for size) and individual variation on the diving behaviour of adult male elephant seals from the two populations. Males from KGI and MI showed differences in all dive parameters. MI males dived deeper and longer (median: 652.0 m and 34.00 min) than KGI males (median: 359.1 m and 25.50 min). KGI males appeared to forage both benthically and pelagically while MI males in this study rarely reached depths close to the seafloor and appeared to forage pelagically. Model outputs indicate that males from the two populations showed substantial differences in their dive depths, even when foraging in areas of similar water depth. Whereas dive depths were not significantly influenced by the size of the animals, size played a significant role in dive durations, though this was also influenced by the population that elephant seals originated from. This study provides some support for inter-population differences in dive behaviour of male southern elephant seals.

Separating ITCZ- and ENSO-related rainfall changes in the Galápagos over the last 3 kyr using D/H ratios of multiple lipid biomarkers

We present a 3000-yr rainfall reconstruction from the Galápagos Islands that is based on paired biomarker records from the sediment of El Junco Lake. Located in the eastern equatorial Pacific, the climate of the Galápagos Islands is governed by movements of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). We use a novel method for reconstructing past ENSO- and ITCZ-related rainfall changes through analysis of molecular and isotopic biomarker records representing several types of plants and algae that grow under differing climatic conditions. We propose that ?D values of dinosterol, a sterol produced by dinoflagellates, record changes in mean rainfall in El Junco Lake, while dD values of C34 botryococcene, a hydrocarbon unique to the green alga Botryococcus braunii, record changes in rainfall associated with moderate-to-strong El Niño events. We use these proxies to infer changes in mean rainfall and El Niño-related rainfall over the past 3000 yr. During periods in which the inferred change in El Niño-related rainfall opposed the change in mean rainfall, we infer changes in the amount of ITCZ-related rainfall. Simulations with an idealized isotope hydrology model of El Junco Lake help illustrate the interpretation of these proxy reconstructions. Opposing changes in El Niño- and ITCZ-related rainfall appear to account for several of the largest inferred hydrologic changes in El Junco Lake. We propose that these reconstructions can be used to infer changes in frequency and/or intensity of El Niño events and changes in the position of the ITCZ in the eastern equatorial Pacific over the past 3000 yr. Comparison with El Junco Lake sediment grain size records indicates general agreement of inferred rainfall changes over the late Holocene.

Seasonal changes in labile organic matter composition on the continental shelf and bathyal sediments of the Cretan Sea

Bacterial abundance, biomass and cell size were studied in the oligotrophic sediments of the Cretan Sea (Eastern Mediterranean), in order to investigate their response to the seasonal varying organic matter (OM) inputs. Sediment samples were collected on a seasonal basis along a transect of seven stations (ranging from 40 to 1570 m depth) using a multiple-corer. Bacterial parameters were related to changes in chloroplastic pigment equivalents (CPE), the biochemical composition (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates) of the sedimentary organic matter and the OM flux measured at a fixed station over the deep basin (1570 m depth). The sediments of the Cretan Sea represent a nutrient depleted ecosystem characterised by a poor quality organic matter. All sedimentary organic compounds were found to vary seasonally, and changes were more evident on the continental shelf than in deeper sediments. Bacterial abundance and biomass in the sediments of the Cretan Sea (ranging from 1.02 to 4.59 * 10**8 cells/g equivalent to 8.7 and 38.7 µgC/g) were quite high and their distribution appeared to be closely related to the input of fresh organic material. Bacterial abundance and biomass were sensitive to changes in nutrient availability, which also controls the average cell size and the frequency of dividing cells. Bacterial abundance increased up to 3-fold between August '94 and February '95 in response to the increased amount of sedimentary proteins and CPE, indicating that benthic bacteria were constrained more by changes in quality rather than the quantity of the sedimentary organic material. Bacterial responses to the food inputs were clearly detectable down to 10 cm depth. The distribution of labile organic compounds in the sediments appeared to influence the vertical patterns of bacterial abundance and biomass. Cell size decreased significantly with water depth. Bacterial abundance and biomass were characterised by clear seasonal changes in response to seasonal OM pulses. The strong coupling between protein flux and bacterial biomass together with the strong bacterial dominance over the total biomass suggest that the major part of the carbon flow was channelled through the bacteria and the benthic microbial loop.

Plant frequency and cover abundance at three sites on Disko Island in 1967/1970 and 2009

We report on a revisit in 2009 to sites where vegetation was recorded in 1967 and 1970 on Disko Island, West Greenland. Re-sampling of the same clones of the grass Phleum alpinum after 39 years showed complete stability in biometrics but dramatic earlier onset of various phenological stages that were not related to changes in population density. In a fell-field community, there was a net species loss, but in a herb-slope community, species losses balanced those that were gained. The type of species establishing and increasing in frequency and/or cover abundance at the fell-field site, particularly prostrate dwarf shrubs, indicates a possible start of a shift towards a heath, rather than a fell-field community. At the herb-slope site, those species that established or increased markedly in frequency and/or cover abundance indicate a change to drier conditions. This is confirmed both by the decrease in abundance of Alchemilla glomerulans and Epilobium hornemanii, and the drying of a nearby pond. The causes of these changes are unknown, although mean annual temperature has risen since 1984.