Distribution of siphonophores in the upwelling area off NW Africa

Using a Bongo-Net equipped with a multiple coded closing device, the vertical distribution of siphonophores has been observed in 100 m depth intervals at 13 stations off Cap Mirik (19°N) (from 0-500 m depth). This distributional pattern of the 15 siphonophores species found is discussed in relationship to the hydrography of this upwelling region. The following main features have been observed in comparision with the warmer oceanic water offshore: (1) a lower diversity, (2) a shallower distribution of some of the deep living species die to the lower temperature in the upper 300 m an a lower transparency, (3) no contribution to acoustic scattering by physonect siphonophores.

Gene sequences of the lichen Cetraria aculeata

Lichens are symbioses between fungi (mycobionts) and photoautotrophic green algae or cyanobacteria (photobionts). Many lichens occupy large distributional ranges covering several climatic zones. So far, little is known about the large-scale phylogeography of lichen photobionts and their role in shaping the distributional ranges of lichens. We studied south polar, temperate and north polar populations of the widely distributed fruticose lichen Cetraria aculeata. Based on the DNA sequences from three loci for each symbiont, we compared the genetic structure of mycobionts and photobionts. Phylogenetic reconstructions and Bayesian clustering methods divided the mycobiont and photobiont data sets into three groups. An AMOVA shows that the genetic variance of the photobiont is best explained by differentiation between temperate and polar regions and that of the mycobiont by an interaction of climatic and geographical factors. By partialling out the relative contribution of climate, geography and codispersal, we found that the most relevant factors shaping the genetic structure of the photobiont are climate and a history of codispersal. Mycobionts in the temperate region are consistently associated with a specific photobiont lineage. We therefore conclude that a photobiont switch in the past enabled C. aculeata to colonize temperate as well as polar habitats. Rare photobiont switches may increase the geographical range and ecological niche of lichen mycobionts by associating them with locally adapted photobionts in climatically different regions and, together with isolation by distance, may lead to genetic isolation between populations and thus drive the evolution of lichens.

Ground beetle (Carabidae) abundance data from north-eastern Australian rainforest, between June 2008 - January 2010, using pitfall traps

Understanding how the environment influences patterns of diversity is vital for effective conservation management, especially in a changing global climate. While assemblage structure and species richness patterns are often correlated with current environmental factors, historical influences may also be considerable, especially for taxa with poor dispersal abilities. Mountain-top regions throughout tropical rainforests can act as important refugia for taxa characterised by low dispersal capacities such as flightless ground beetles (Carabidae), an ecologically significant predatory group. We surveyed flightless ground beetles along elevational gradients in five different subregions within the Australian Wet Tropics World Heritage Area to investigate (1) whether the diversity and composition of flightless ground beetles are elevationally stratified, and, if so, (2) what environmental factors (other than elevation per se) are associated with these patterns. Generalised linear models and model averaging techniques were used to relate patterns of diversity to environmental factors. Unlike most taxonomic groups, flightless ground beetles increased in species richness and abundance with elevation. Additionally, each subregion consisted of distinct assemblages containing a high level of regional endemic species. Species richness was most strongly positively associated with the historical climatic conditions and negatively associated with severity of recent disturbance (treefalls) and current climatic conditions. Assemblage composition was associated with latitude and current and historical climatic conditions. Our results suggest that distributional patterns of flightless ground beetles are not only likely to be associated with factors that change with elevation (current climatic conditions), but also factors that are independent of elevation (recent disturbance and historical climatic conditions). Variation in historical vegetation stability explained both species richness and assemblage composition patterns, probably reflecting the significance of upland refugia at a geographic time scale. These findings are important for conservation management as upland habitats are under threat from climate change.

(Table S1) Molecular analyses and morphological comparisons of deep-sea clams

Large vesicomyid clams are common inhabitants of sulphidic deep-sea habitats such as hydrothermal vents, hydrocarbon seeps and whale-falls. Yet, the species- and genus-level taxonomy of these diverse clams has been unstable due to insufficiencies in sampling and absence of detailed taxonomic studies that would consistently compare molecular and morphological characters. To clarify uncertainties about species-level assignments, we examined DNA sequences from mitochondrial cytochrome-c-oxidase subunit I (COI) in conjunction with morphological characters. New and published COI sequences were used to create a molecular database for 44 unique evolutionary lineages corresponding to species. Overall, the congruence between molecular and morphological characters was good. Several discrepancies due to synonymous species designations were recognized, and acceptable species names were rectified with published COI sequences in cases where morphological specimens were available. We identified seven species with trans-Pacific distributions, and two species with Indo-Pacific distributions. Presently, 27 species have only been documented from one region, which might reflect limited ranges, or insufficient geographical sampling. Vesicomyids exhibit the greatest species diversity along the northwest Pacific ridge systems and in the eastern Pacific, along the western America margin, where depth zonation typically results in segregation of closely related species. The broad distributions of several vesicomyid species suggest that their required chemosynthetic habitats might be more common than previously recognized and occur along most continental margins.

Chiasmolithus species in middle Eocene and Oligocene sediments of ODP Holes 105-647A and 120-748B

In this preliminary biometric study of the calcareous nannofossil species Chiasmolithus expansus, Chiasmolithus oamaruensis, and Chiasmolithus altus from the upper middle Eocene to lower Oligocene of Sites 647 and 748, we document a complete gradation of forms among all three species. Chiasmolithus oamaruensis has significantly higher morphologic variance than the other species. The Chiasmolithus population at each site changes from C. expansus to C. oamaruensis and then to C. altus. This may not reflect a true evolutionary sequence because a major reversal in shape change of the central cross-bar structure accompanies this sequence, and because C. altus is morphologically closer to C. expansus than it is to C. oamaruensis. The change in the width of the cross-bar structure is primarily a result of changes in the alignment of the central connecting bar, rather than of changes in the cross-bar angle. At Site 748, two fluctuations in morphology produce sample populations intermediate between all three species. In addition, reported stratigraphic and paleogeographic occurrences of C. oamaruensis and C. altus show different latitudinal distributions. These morphological and distributional patterns may be explained by a continuous morphologic gradient between C. oamaruensis and C. altus, with C. oamaruensis occurring more commonly in cool-water paleoenvironments, and C. altus occurring more commonly in cold-water paleoenvironments. Thus, paleoenvironmental fluctuations at Site 748 may be the cause of the morphologic fluctuations in Chiasmolithus. This hypothesis can be tested against previously proposed evolutionary models by more detailed sampling of sections along a latitudinal transect.

Plant distribution and climate data across western North America

Using an extensive network of occurrence records for 293 plant species collected over the past 40 years across a climatically diverse geographic section of western North America, we find that plant species distributions were just as likely to shift upwards (i.e., towards higher elevations) as downward (i.e., towards lower elevations) - despite consistent warming across the study area. Although there was no clear directional response to climate warming across the entire study area, there was significant region-to region- variation in responses (i.e. from as many as 73% to as few as32% of species shifting upward or downward). To understand the factors that might be controlling region-specific distributional shifts, we explored the relationship between the direction of change in distribution limits and the nature of recent climate change. We found that the direction of distribution limit shifts was explained by an interaction between the rate of change in local summer temperatures and seasonal precipitation. Specifically, species shifted upward at their upper elevational limit when snowfall declined at slower rates and minimum temperatures increased. By contrast, species shifted upwards at their lower elevation limit when maximum temperatures increased or both temperature and precipitation decreased. Our results suggest that future species' elevational distribution shifts will be complex, depending on the interaction between seasonal temperature and precipitation change.

Characteristics, home ranges and population estimates of narwhals (Monodon monoceros) around Baffin Island

Twenty-one narwhals tagged in 2003 and 2004 in Admiralty Inlet showed a different summer distributional pattern than previous narwhal-tracking studies from Somerset Island, Eclipse Sound and Melville Bay. The migration of the narwhals tracked from Admiralty Inlet moved out through Lancaster Sound 15 days earlier (P <0.0001) than the narwhals summering around Eclipse Sound, whereas the Admiralty Inlet narwhals reached the mouths of Eclipse Sound 18 days later (P <0.0001) than the Eclipse Sound summering population. The winter range of the Admiralty Inlet narwhals overlapped with the winter range of narwhals from Melville Bay and Eclipse Sound in central southern Baffin Bay and Northern Davis Strait, but not with the winter range of narwhals from Somerset Island that wintered further north. Distribution size of range, and population size did not appear to be related. An example of considerable year to year variation between area of summer and winter distribution in the 2 years was believed to be related to the sample size and number of pods of whales tagged, rather than to differences in sex or age classes.

Distribution of the planktonic foraminifer genus Streptochilus in Neogene sediments

Study of four species of the biserial planktonic foraminifer Streptochitus from Deep Sea Drilling Project cores of the Eauripik Rise, western equatorial Pacific, and Ninety-east Ridge, Indian Ocean, shows that both the stratigraphic distribution of species and their frequency patterns (though not actual frequencies or abundances) are correlative in the two areas, supporting their use as stratigraphic and paleoecologic index fossils. Their distributional trends are linked to eustatic sea level changes and to changes in the mixing of surface waters; low frequencies and species turnovers occur during regressive phases when strong circulation of oxygenated waters could lead to the subsequent decline of their oxygen-minimum habitat. The species S. subglobigerum. S. latum. S. globigerum, and S. globulosum succeed one another at intervals averaging 2,5 my from late middle Miocene Zone N15 through Quaternary Zone N23. The new species, Streptochilus suhglobigerum, is described for what was formerly thought to be a stratiraphically lower, disjunct part of the range of S. globigerum. These four species most likely belong to a single phylogenetic lineage as evidenced by some transitional morphologies.

Quaternary radiolarian counts from Site 181-1123

In the present work Quaternary radiolarian assemblages from the Southwest Pacific were investigated due to their importance for correlation and identification of climatic changes. The studied Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 1123 (Leg 181) is situated on the northern flanks of the Chatham Rise, 1100 kilometres offshore eastern New Zealand and in a water depth o f 3290 metres. It is situated just north of the Subtropical Convergence (STC) in temperate climatic conditions, influenced by the cold deep Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) and by the subtropical East Cape Current (ECC) in shallow water depths. A continuous record of 79 sediment samples from this site with a temporal resolution of ~15,000 years provided a medium-resolution record of radiolarian assemblages through the Quaternary. This allowed investigations on how radiolarian assemblages are influenced by climatic variations at obliquity and eccentricity bandwidth, with periodic variations of 40,000, 100,000 and 400,000 years, respectively. Emphasis was given to changes in radiolarian assemblages through the Mid-Pleistocene climate transition (MPT) that marks a fundamental reorganisation in Earth's climate system by change from 40,000 to 100,000 year cycles. Glacial and interglacial variations in oceanography were investigated. Especially the influence of the DWBC was examined due to its input of deep and cold waters to the Pacific Ocean, which plays an important role in Earth's climate system. 167 radiolarian counting groups were examined concerning variations in radiolarian abundance, preservation, diversity, the relative abundance of orders, families, and selected species in order to detect influences of past climatic variations in the Southwest Pacific. No significant changes in radiolarian assemblages were found in coincidence with the onset of the MPT. Investigations led to the recognition of four characteristic phases within the last 1.2 million years. Within one of these phases (Phase Ill), about 160,000 years after the onset of the MPT, fundamental changes in radiolarian assemblages occurred. Investigations yielded highest diversity and highest numbers of nassellarians in abundant samples, whereas sparse samples were mostly poorly preserved and were dominated by spumellarians. Abundance of certain radiolarian families in interglacials or glacials indicated their usefulness as indicators for climatic conditions at Site 1123. Trends o f selected taxa within these families supported the significance of warm- or cool-water preference of these families. Use of 67 radiolarian species as climate indicators showed abundance of warm-water assemblages within interglacials, whereas abundance of cool-water species was increased within glacials. Depth distributional patterns of 52 radiolarian species indicated a strong influence of shallow waters, possibly the EEC, within interglacials and increased influence of deep and intermediate waters, possibly of southern-sourced character and the DWBC in glacial stages.

Data collection of depth and time integrated Calanus finmarchicus abundances, averaged temperatures, and integrated Chlorophyll concentration in the North Atlantic Ocean

Here we present a new, pan-North-Atlantic compilation of data on key mesozooplankton species, including the most important copepod, Calanus finmarchicus. Distributional data of eight representative zooplankton taxa, from recent (2000-2009) Continuous Plankton Recorder data, are presented, along with basin-scale data of the phytoplankton colour index. Then we present a compilation of data on C. finmarchicus, including observations of abundance, demography, egg production and female size, with accompanying data on temperature and chlorophyll. . This is a contribution by Canadian, European and US scientists and their institutions.

Sediment, isotopic and geochemical record during Marine Isotope Stages 29 to 34 of IODP Site 339-U1387

Centennial-to-millennial scale records from IODP Site U1387, drilled during IODP Expedition 339 into the Faro Drift at 558 m water depth, now allow evaluating the climatic history of the upper core of the Mediterranean Outflow (MOW) and of the surface waters in the northern Gulf of Cadiz during the early Pleistocene. This study focuses on the period from Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 29 to 34, i.e. the interval surrounding extreme interglacial MIS 31. Conditions in the upper MOW reflect obliquity, precession and millennial-scale variations. The benthic d18O signal follows obliquity with the exception of an additional, smaller d18O peak that marks the MIS 32/31 transition. Insolation maxima (precession minima) led to poor ventilation and a sluggish upper MOW core, whereas insolation minima were associated with enhanced ventilation and often also increased bottom current velocity. Millennial-scale periods of colder sea-surface temperatures (SST) were associated with short-term maxima in flow velocity and better ventilation, reminiscent of conditions known from MIS 3. A prominent contourite layer, coinciding with insolation cycle 100, was formed during MIS 31 and represents one of the few contourites developing within an interglacial period. MIS 31 surface water conditions were characterized by an extended period (1065-1091 ka) of warm SST, but SST were not much warmer than during MIS 33. Interglacial to glacial transitions experienced 2 to 3 stadial/interstadial cycles, just like their mid-to-late Pleistocene counterparts. Glacial MIS 30 and 32 recorded periods of extremely cold (< 12°C) SST that in their climatic impact were comparable to the Heinrich events of the mid and late Pleistocene. Glacial MIS 34, on the other hand, was a relative warm glacial period off southern Portugal. Overall, surface water and MOW conditions at Site U1387 show strong congruence with Mediterranean climate, whereas millennial-scale variations are closely linked to North Atlantic circulation changes.

Living benthic foraminiferal assemblages in surface samples of the Arabian Sea

The distribution, biomass, and diversity of living (Rose Bengal stained) deep-sea benthic foraminifera (>30 µm) were investigated with multicorer samples from seven stations in the Arabian Sea during the intermonsoonal periods in March and in September/October, 1995. Water depths of the stations ranged between 1916 and 4425 m. The distribution of benthic foraminifera was compared with dissolved oxygen, % organic carbon, % calcium carbonate, ammonium, % silica, chloroplastic pigment equivalents, sand content, pore water content of the sediment, and organic carbon flux to explain the foraminiferal patterns and depositional environments. A total of six species-communities comprising 178 living species were identified by principal component analysis. The seasonal comparison shows that at the western stations foraminiferal abundance and biomass were higher during the Spring Intermonsoon than during the Fall Intermonsoon. The regional comparison indicates a distinct gradient in abundance, biomass, and diversity from west to east, and for biomass from north to south. Highest values are recorded in the western part of the Arabian Sea, where the influence of coastal and offshore upwelling are responsible for high carbon fluxes. Estimated total biomass of living benthic foraminifera integrated for the upper 5 cm of the sediment ranged between 11 mg Corg m**-2 at the southern station and 420 mg Corg m**-2 at the western station. Foraminifera in the size range from 30 to 125 ?m, the so-called microforaminifera, contributed between 20 and 65% to the abundance, but only 3% to 28% to the biomass of the fauna. Highest values were found in the central and southern Arabian Sea, indicating their importance in oligotrophic deep-sea areas. The overall abundance of benthic foraminifera is positively correlated with oxygen content and pore volume, and partly with carbon content and chloroplastic pigment equivalents of the sediment. The distributional patterns of the communities seem to be controlled by sand fraction, dissolved oxygen, calcium carbonate and organic carbon content of the sediment, but the critical variables are of different significance for each community.

(Table 2) Planktic foraminifera and their diversity indices of sediment surface samples from the Atlantic Ocean

Species distribution patterns in planktonic foraminiferal assemblages are fundamental to the understanding of the determinants of their ecology. Until now, data used to identify such distribution patterns was mainly acquired using the standard >150 µm sieve size. However, given that assemblage shell size-range in planktonic foraminifera is not constant, this data acquisition practice could introduce artefacts in the distributional data. Here, we investigated the link between assemblage shell size-range and diversity in Recent planktonic foraminifera by analysing multiple sieve-size fractions in 12 samples spanning all bioprovinces of the Atlantic Ocean. Using five diversity indices covering various aspects of community structure, we found that counts from the >63 µm fraction in polar oceans and the >125 µm elsewhere sufficiently approximate maximum diversity in all Recent assemblages. Diversity values based on counts from the >150 µm fraction significantly underestimate maximum diversity in the polar and surprisingly also in the tropical provinces. Although the new methodology changes the shape of the diversity/sea-surface temperature (SST) relationship, its strength appears unaffected. Our analysis reveals that increasing diversity in planktonic foraminiferal assemblages is coupled with a progressive addition of larger species that have distinct, offset shell-size distributions. Thus, the previously documented increase in overall assemblage shell size-range towards lower latitudes is linked to an expanding shell-size disparity between species from the same locality. This observation supports the idea that diversity and shell size-range disparity in foraminiferal assemblages are the result of niche separation. Increasing SST leads to enhanced surface water stratification and results in vertical niche separation, which permits ecological specialisation. Specific deviations from the overall diversity and shell-size disparity latitudinal pattern are seen in regions of surface-water instability, indicating that coupled shell-size and diversity measurements could be used to reconstruct water column structures of past oceans.

Body condition indices of Asian green mussels, Perna viridis, from Indonesia

While part of a single country, the Indonesian archipelago covers several biogeographic regions, and the high levels of national shipping likely facilitate transfer of non-native organisms between the different regions. Two vessels of a domestic shipping line appear to have served as a transport vector for the Asian green mussel Perna viridis (Linnaeus, 1758) between regions. This species is indigenous in the western but not in the eastern part of the archipelago, separated historically by the Sunda Shelf. The green mussels collected from the hulls of the ferries when in eastern Indonesia showed a significantly lower body condition index than similar-sized individuals from three different western-Indonesian mussel populations. This was presumably due to reduced food supply during the ships' voyages. Although this transportinduced food shortage may initially limit the invasive potential (through reduced reproductive rates) of the translocated individuals, the risk that the species will extend its distributional range further into eastern Indonesia is high. If the species becomes widely established in eastern Indonesia, there will then be an increased risk of incursions to Australia, where the mussel is listed as a high-priority pest species.

Table 2: Firn temperature, ram resistance, mass balance and submergence velo city measurements on Colle Gnifetti

Distributional patterns of glaciological parameters at the Colle Gnifetti core drilling site are described and their interrelationships are brietly discussed. Observations within a stake network established in 1980 furnish information about snow accumulation (short term balance), submergence velocity of ice tlow (long term balance), ram hardness (melt layer stratigraphy), and firn temperature. In addition, a numerical model was used to estimate local variations of available radiant energy. Melt layer formation is considerably more intensive on the south facing parts of the firn saddie where incoming radiation is high. These melt layers seem to effectively protect some of the fallen snow from wind erosion. As a result, balance ist up to one order of magnitude larger on south facing slopes. Heat applied to the surface is therefore positively correlated with balance, whereas the relation between solar radiation and firn temperature is less dear. Distributional patterns of submergence velocity confirm that the observed spatial variability of surface balance is representative for longer time periods and greatly intluences the time scale and the stratigraphy of firn and ice cores from Colle Gnifetti.