A 20 m spatial resolution seamless multisource Digital Elevation/Depth Model for Lizard Island, northern Great Barrier Reef

Hydrographers have traditionally referred to the nearshore area as the "white ribbon" area due to the challenges associated with the collection of elevation data in this highly dynamic transitional zone between terrestrial and marine environments. Accordingly, available information in this zone is typically characterised by a range of datasets from disparate sources. In this paper we propose a framework to 'fill' the white ribbon area of a coral reef system by integrating multiple elevation and bathymetric datasets acquired by a suite of remote-sensing technologies into a seamless digital elevation model (DEM). A range of datasets are integrated, including field-collected GPS elevation points, terrestrial and bathymetric LiDAR, single and multibeam bathymetry, nautical chart depths and empirically derived bathymetry estimations from optical remote sensing imagery. The proposed framework ranks data reliability internally, thereby avoiding the requirements to quantify absolute error and results in a high resolution, seamless product. Nested within this approach is an effective spatially explicit technique for improving the accuracy of bathymetry estimates derived empirically from optical satellite imagery through modelling the spatial structure of residuals. The approach was applied to data collected on and around Lizard Island in northern Australia. Collectively, the framework holds promise for filling the white ribbon zone in coastal areas characterised by similar data availability scenarios. The seamless DEM is referenced to the horizontal coordinate system MGA Zone 55 - GDA 1994, mean sea level (MSL) vertical datum and has a spatial resolution of 20 m.

Benthic and substrate cover data derived from photo-transect surveys in Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef conducted on October 3-7, 2012

Underwater georeferenced photo-transect surveys were conducted on October 3-7, 2012 at various sections of the reef and lagoon at Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef. For this survey a snorkeler swam while taking photos of the benthos at a set distance from the benthos using a standard digital camera and towing a GPS in a surface float which logged the track every five seconds. A Canon G12 digital camera was placed in a Canon underwater housing and photos were taken at 1 m height above the benthos. Horizontal distance between photos was estimated by three fin kicks of the survey snorkeler, which corresponded to a surface distance of approximately 2.0 - 4.0 m. The GPS was placed in a dry bag and logged the position at the surface while being towed by the photographer (Roelfsema, 2009). A total of 1,265 benthic photos were taken. Approximation of coordinates of each benthic photo was conducted based on the photo timestamp and GPS coordinate time stamp, using GPS Photo Link Software (www.geospatialexperts.com). Coordinates of each photo were interpolated by finding the GPS coordinates that were logged at a set time before and after the photo was captured. Benthic or substrate cover data was derived from each photo by randomly placing 24 points over each image using the Coral Point Count for Microsoft Excel program (Kohler and Gill, 2006). Each point was then assigned to 1 of 79 cover types, which represented the benthic feature beneath it. Benthic cover composition summary of each photo scores was generated automatically using CPCE program. The resulting benthic cover data of each photo was linked to GPS coordinates, saved as an ArcMap point shapefile, and projected to Universal Transverse Mercator WGS84 Zone 55 South.

Results of wave modelling for Moreton Bay, Southeast Queensland, and a reef lagoon off Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia

The distribution, abundance, behaviour, and morphology of marine species is affected by spatial variability in the wave environment. Maps of wave metrics (e.g. significant wave height Hs, peak energy wave period Tp, and benthic wave orbital velocity URMS) are therefore useful for predictive ecological models of marine species and ecosystems. A number of techniques are available to generate maps of wave metrics, with varying levels of complexity in terms of input data requirements, operator knowledge, and computation time. Relatively simple "fetch-based" models are generated using geographic information system (GIS) layers of bathymetry and dominant wind speed and direction. More complex, but computationally expensive, "process-based" models are generated using numerical models such as the Simulating Waves Nearshore (SWAN) model. We generated maps of wave metrics based on both fetch-based and process-based models and asked whether predictive performance in models of benthic marine habitats differed. Predictive models of seagrass distribution for Moreton Bay, Southeast Queensland, and Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia, were generated using maps based on each type of wave model. For Lizard Island, performance of the process-based wave maps was significantly better for describing the presence of seagrass, based on Hs, Tp, and URMS. Conversely, for the predictive model of seagrass in Moreton Bay, based on benthic light availability and Hs, there was no difference in performance using the maps of the different wave metrics. For predictive models where wave metrics are the dominant factor determining ecological processes it is recommended that process-based models be used. Our results suggest that for models where wave metrics provide secondarily useful information, either fetch- or process-based models may be equally useful.

Biology community and bottom sediments in the West Bay of the Furugelm Island, Sea of Japan

An experiment was carried out on the soft bottom in the sublitoral zone of the Furugelm Island (Peter the Great Bay, Sea of Japan) to study formation of benthic communities. Boxes with defauned sediments were placed on depths of 4, 6 and 13 m and exposed during 60 days in the summer period. Half of them were covered with a net with mesh size 2 cm to prevent effect of large predators. It was found that spatial pattern of invertebrates' sinking in the bay conforms to distribution of benthic communities. Larvae of benthic invertebrates sinks in general in places inhabited by their adult species. The main factors responsible for recolonzation are: sediment type and local hydrodynamic conditions. Heart-shaped sea urchin Echinocardium cordatum is numerically dominated in the bay on depth 3-4.5 m, but its larvae sinks in the deeper area. Community structure is supported by mature specimen migration to places inhabited by species. Predators affect largely on the species.

Carbonate chemistry, temperature and salinity of Lady Elliot Island Reef 2009-2010

Ocean acidification leads to changes in marine carbonate chemistry that are predicted to cause a decline in future coral reef calcification. Several laboratory and mesocosm experiments have described calcification responses of species and communities to increasing CO2. The few in situ studies on natural coral reefs that have been carried out to date have shown a direct relationship between aragonite saturation state (Omega arag) and net community calcification (Gnet). However, these studies have been performed over a limited range of Omega arag values, where extrapolation outside the observational range is required to predict future changes in coral reef calcification. We measured extreme diurnal variability in carbonate chemistry within a reef flat in the southern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Omega arag varied between 1.1 and 6.5, thus exceeding the magnitude of change expected this century in open ocean subtropical/tropical waters. The observed variability comes about through biological activity on the reef, where changes to the carbonate chemistry are enhanced at low tide when reef flat waters are isolated from open ocean water. We define a relationship between net community calcification and Omega arag, using our in situ measurements. We find net community calcification to be linearly related to Omega arag, while temperature and nutrients had no significant effect on Gnet. Using our relationship between Gnet and Omega arag, we predict that net community calcification will decline by 55% of its preindustrial value by the end of the century. It is not known at this stage whether exposure to large variability in carbonate chemistry will make reef flat organisms more or less vulnerable to the non-calcifying physiological effects of increasing ocean CO2 and future laboratory studies will need to incorporate this natural variability to address this question.

Concentrations of persistant organic pollutants in Great skua eggs (Stercorarius skua) from Shetland 1980 and 2008

Concentrations of POPs in Great skua eggs from Shetland are among the highest in North Atlantic seabirds, with up to 11,600 µg/kg (ww) DDE and up to 17,900 µg/kg ww SumPCB. Concentrations of legacy POPs were significantly lower in 2008 than 1980. Decreases were greatest for least persistent compounds. Median SumPBDEs increased from 99 µg/kg ww in 1980 to 173 µg/kg ww in 2008. There were changes in Great skua breeding season diet, with more adult Herring and Mackerel and less Sandeel. These changes increase exposure to POPs, since Herring and Mackerel accumulate more POPs than Sandeels. In both years, eggs with higher d15N had higher POP concentrations. In 1980, birds feeding more on demersal discard fish from trawl fisheries and less on Sandeels, had higher POP levels in eggs. In 2008, individuals feeding more on Herring and Mackerel, and less on discards, had higher POP levels in eggs.

Soil characteristics of cryosols from two sites on King George Island, maritime Antarctica

This study presents soil temperature and moisture regimes from March 2008 to January 2009 for two active layer monitoring (CALM-S) sites at King George Island, Maritime Antarctica. The monitoring sites were installed during the summer of 2008 and consist of thermistors (accuracy of ±0.2 °C), arranged vertically with probes at different depths and one soil moisture probe placed at the bottommost layer at each site (accuracy of ± 2.5%), recording data at hourly intervals in a high capacity datalogger. The active layer thermal regime in the studied period for both soils was typical of periglacial environments, with extreme variation in surface temperature during summer resulting in frequent freeze and thaw cycles. The great majority of the soil temperature readings during the eleven month period was close to 0 °C, resulting in low values of freezing and thawing degree days. Both soils have poor thermal apparent diffusivity but values were higher for the soil from Fildes Peninsula. The different moisture regimes for the studied soils were attributed to soil texture, with the coarser soil presenting much lower water content during all seasons. Differences in water and ice contents may explain the contrasting patterns of freezing of the studied soils, being two-sided for the coarser soil and one-sided for the loamy soil. The temperature profile of the studied soils during the eleven month period indicates that the active layer reached a maximum depth of approximately 92 cm at Potter and 89 cm at Fildes. Longer data sets are needed for more conclusive analysis on active layer behaviour in this part of Antarctica.

Carbonate chemistry, community metabolism, PAR, temperature and salinity of One Tree Island reef

There are few in situ studies showing how net community calcification (Gnet) of coral reefs is related to carbonate chemistry, and the studies to date have demonstrated different predicted rates of change. In this study, we measured net community production (Pnet), Gnet, and carbonate chemistry of a reef flat at One Tree Island, Great Barrier Reef. Diurnal pCO2 variability of 289-724 µatm was driven primarily by photosynthesis and respiration. The reef flat was found to be net autotrophic, with daily production of ? 35 mmol C/m**2/d and net calcification of ? 33 mmol C/m**2/d . Gnet was strongly related to Pnet, which drove a hysteresis pattern in the relationship between Gnet and aragonite saturation state (Omega ar). Although Pnet was the main driver of Gnet, Omega ar was still an important factor, where 95% of the variance in Gnet could be described by Pnet and Omega ar. Based on the observed in situ relationship, Gnet would be expected to reach zero when Omega ar is 2.5. It is unknown what proportion of a decline in Gnet would be through reduced calcification and what would occur through increased dissolution, but the results here support predictions that overall calcium carbonate production will decline in coral reefs as a result of ocean acidification.

(Table 1) Prey species identified from the scats of Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella) on Bouvet Island

Intraspecific differences in the diets of many species of pinnipeds are to be expected in view of the great differences in morphology, life history and foraging behaviour between the sexes of many species. We examined the diet of the Antarctic fur seal population at Bouvetøya, Southern Ocean, to assess intersexual differences. This was made possible by the analysis of prey remains extracted from scats and regurgitations collected in areas used primarily by one or the other sex. The results indicate that both males and females feed primarily on Antarctic krill Euphausia superba with several species of fish and squid being taken, likely opportunistically given their prevalence. Significant differences were identified in the frequency of occurrence of otoliths in scats and the percentage numerical abundance of the major fish prey species in the diet. Adult males ate a smaller quantity of fish overall, but ate significantly more of the larger fish species. The greater diving capabilities of males and the fact that they are not limited in the extent of their foraging area by having to return regularly to feed dependant offspring may play a role in the differences found between the diets of males and females. Additionally, females might be more selective, favouring myctophids because they are richer in energy than krill. The absence of major differences in the diet between the sexes at this location is likely due to the high overall abundance of prey at Bouvetøya.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and community calcification during Shiraha coral reef (Ishigaki Island, Japan) studies, 1995

Only about half of all the CO_2 that has been produced by the burning of fossil fuels now remains in the atmosphere. The CO_2 "missing" from the atmosphere is the subject of an important debate. It was thought that the great majority of the missing CO_2 has invaded the ocean, for this system naturally acts as a giant chemical regulator of the atmosphere. Although it is clear that ocean processes have a major role in the regulation of the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere through air-sea exchange processes, recent studies of the oceanic carbon cycle and air-sea interaction indicate that oceanic carbon is in a quasi-steady state via the system of biological and physical processes in the ocean interior. It is difficult to determine whether the ocean has the capacity to take up the increasing air-born CO_2 released by human activities over the past five or six decades. To understand this enigma, we need a better understanding of the natural variability of the oceanic carbon cycle.

K-Ar dating of magmatic rocks from the Urup Island, Kuril Island Chain

An isotope-geochronological study of Neogene-Quaternary igneous rocks from the Urup Island (Greater Kuril Ridge) was carried out. It was established that magmatic activity in the island developed during the last 10 my and it was not interrupted by long inactive periods. K-Ar data obtained along with results of diatomic analysis are in good agreement with the regional stratigraphic scheme of Paleogene and Neogene deposits and the intraregional correlation scheme of magmatic rocks in the Kuril Islands, which are developed for the State Geologic Map, scale 1:200 000 (Second edition). In the present-day territory of the Urup Island, the earliest Late Miocene - Early Pliocene (10.5-4.5 Ma) magmatic stage was associated with formation of the Rybakovsky andesite volcanic complex, which is represented by an effusive series (Rybakovskaya Suite) and subvolcanic rocks. Actually at the same time (6.6-4.7 Ma), but at a great depth, intrusive bodies of the Prasolovsky plagiogranite-diorite plutonic complex were intruded. The Pliocene stage of magmatism in the Urup Island is characterized by formation of rocks of the Kamuysky dacitic volcanic complex (4.0-2.1 Ma). This complex is locally represented only by subvolcanic acidic bodies, and its occurrence in the island is limited. During the Pliocene - Early Neopleistocene stage of magmatism (3.0-0.8 Ma) the Fregatsky andesibasalt volcanic complex was formed in the Urup Island. This complex includes effusive series (Fregatskaya unit) and subvolcanic bodies. Quaternary time in the Urup Island is characterized by eruptive activity in subaerial conditions with formation of effusive-pyroclastic intermediate-basic rocks of the Bogatyrsky Middle Neopleistocene - Holocene complex (<0.5 Ma). Rocks of this complex formed stratovolcano cones. Pyroclastic rocks of the Rokovsky dacitic volcanic complex were erupted simultaneously. The mentioned magmatic complexes of the Urup Island well correlate with the distinguished magmatic complexes within the bounds of contiguous insular blocks of the Greater Kuril Arc and confirm uniform geologic history of magmatic development of the region.