Q method factor analysis of stakeholder social perspectives of the effectiveness of Environmental Impact Assessment public participation in the Western Cape, South Africa

Public participation is an integral part of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), and as such, has been incorporated into regulatory norms. Assessment of the effectiveness of public participation has remained elusive however. This is partly due to the difficulty in identifying appropriate effectiveness criteria. This research uses Q methodology to discover and analyze stakeholder's social perspectives of the effectiveness of EIAs in the Western Cape, South Africa. It considers two case studies (Main Road and Saldanha Bay EIAs) for contextual participant perspectives of the effectiveness based on their experience. It further considers the more general opinion of provincial consent regulator staff at the Department of Environmental Affairs and the Department of Planning (DEA&DP). Two main themes of investigation are drawn from the South African National Environmental Management Act imperative for effectiveness: firstly, the participation procedure, and secondly, the stakeholder capabilities necessary for effective participation. Four theoretical frameworks drawn from planning, politics and EIA theory are adapted to public participation and used to triangulate the analysis and discussion of the revealed social perspectives. They consider citizen power in deliberation, Habermas' preconditions for the Ideal Speech Situation (ISS), a Foucauldian perspective of knowledge, power and politics, and a Capabilities Approach to public participation effectiveness. The empirical evidence from this research shows that the capacity and contextual constraints faced by participants demand the legislative imperatives for effective participation set out in the NEMA. The implementation of effective public participation has been shown to be a complex, dynamic and sometimes nebulous practice. The functional level of participant understanding of the process was found to be significantly wide-ranging with consequences of unequal and dissatisfied stakeholder engagements. Furthermore, the considerable variance of stakeholder capabilities in the South African social context, resulted in inequalities in deliberation. The social perspectives revealed significant differences in participant experience in terms of citizen power in deliberation. The ISS preconditions are highly contested in both the Saldanha EIA case study and the DEA&DP social perspectives. Only one Main Road EIA case study social perspective considered Foucault's notion of governmentality as a reality in EIA public participation. The freedom of control of ones environment, based on a Capabilities approach, is a highly contested notion. Although agreed with in principle, all of the social perspectives indicate that contextual and capacity realities constrain its realisation. This research has shown that Q method can be applied to EIA public participation in South Africa and, with the appropriate research or monitoring applications it could serve as a useful feedback tool to inform best practice public participation.

(Table 2) Comparison of annual mass fluxes measured with shallower and deeper sediment traps off Cape Blanc (CB)

The ocean off NW Africa is the second most important coastal upwelling system with a total annual primary production of 0.33 Gt of carbon per year (Carr in Deep Sea Res II 49:59-80, 2002). Deep ocean organic carbon fluxes measured by sediment traps are also fairly high despite low biogenic opal fluxes. Due to a low supply of dissolved silicate from subsurface waters, the ocean off NW Africa is characterized by predominantly carbonate-secreting primary producers, i.e. coccolithophorids. These algae which are key primary producers since millions of years are found in organic- and chlorophyll-rich zooplankton fecal pellets, which sink rapidly through the water column within a few days. Particle flux studies in the Mauretanian upwelling area (Cape Blanc) confirm the hypothesis of Armstrong et al. (Deep Sea Res II 49:219-236, 2002) who proposed that ballast availability, e.g. of carbonate particles, is essential to predict deep ocean organic carbon fluxes. The role of dust as ballast mineral for organic carbon, however, must be also taken into consideration in the coastal settings off NW Africa. There, high settling rates of larger particles approach 400 m day**-1, which may be due to a particular composition of mineral ballast. An assessment of particle settling rates from opal-production systems in the Southern Ocean of the Atlantic Sector, in contrast, provides lower values, consistent with the assumptions of Francois et al. (Global Biogeochem Cycles 16(4):1087, 2002). Satellite chlorophyll distributions, particle distributions and fluxes in the water column off NW Africa as well as modelling studies suggest a significant lateral flux component and export of particles from coastal shelf waters into the open ocean. These transport processes have implications for paleo-reconstructions from sediment cores retrieved at continental margin settings.

Geochemistry of bulk sediment from the Cape Basin

A technique for onsite application of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry to samples from sediment cores aboard a research vessel was developed and tested. The method is sufficiently simple, precise, and fast to be used routinely for high-resolution analyses of depth profiles as well as surface samples. Analyses were performed with the compact high-performance energy-dispersive polarisation X-ray fluorescence (EDPXRF) analyser Spectro Xepos. Contents of the elements Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, K, Sr, Ba, Rb, Cu, Ni, Zn, P, S, Cl and Br were simultaneously determined on 200-225 samples of each core within 24 h of recovery. This study presents a description of the employed shipboard preparation and analysis technique, along with some example data. We show land-based datasets that support our decisions to use powder samples and to reduce the original measuring time for onboard analyses. We demonstrate how well the results from shipboard measurements for the various elements compare with the land-based findings. The onboard geochemical data enabled us to establish an element stratigraphy already during the cruise. Correlation of iron, calcium and silicon enrichment trends with an older reference core provided an age model for the newly retrieved cores. The Spectro Xepos instrument performed without any analytical and technical difficulties which could have been caused by rougher weather conditions or continuous movement and vibration of the research vessel. By now, this XRF technique has been applied during three RV Meteor cruises to approximately 5,000 Late Quaternary sediment samples from altogether 23 gravity cores, 25 multicorer cores and two box cores from the eastern South Atlantic off South Africa/Namibia and the eastern Atlantic off NW Africa.

Particle camera and settling chamber measurements at site PC (GeoB11834-3) and SC (GeoB12914-4) off Cape Blanc/Mauritania

Particles sinking out of the euphotic zone are important vehicles of carbon export from the surface ocean. Most of the particles produce heavier aggregates by coagulating with each other before they sink. We implemented an aggregation model into the biogeochemical model of Regional Oceanic Modelling System (ROMS) to simulate the distribution of particles in the water column and their downward transport in the Northwest African upwelling region. Accompanying settling chamber, sediment trap and particle camera measurements provide data for model validation. In situ aggregate settling velocities measured by the settling chamber were around 55 m d**-1. Aggregate sizes recorded by the particle camera hardly exceeded 1 mm. The model is based on a continuous size spectrum of aggregates, characterised by the prognostic aggregate mass and aggregate number concentration. Phytoplankton and detritus make up the aggregation pool, which has an averaged, prognostic and size dependent sinking. Model experiments were performed with dense and porous approximations of aggregates with varying maximum aggregate size and stickiness as well as with the inclusion of a disaggregation term. Similar surface productivity in all experiments has been generated in order to find the best combination of parameters that produce measured deep water fluxes. Although the experiments failed to represent surface particle number spectra, in the deep water some of them gave very similar slope and spectrum range as the particle camera observations. Particle fluxes at the mesotrophic sediment trap site off Cape Blanc (CB) have been successfully reproduced by the porous experiment with disaggregation term when particle remineralisation rate was 0.2 d**-1. The aggregation-disaggregation model improves the prediction capability of the original biogeochemical model significantly by giving much better estimates of fluxes for both upper and lower trap. The results also point to the need for more studies to enhance our knowledge on particle decay and its variation and to the role that stickiness play in the distribution of vertical fluxes.