(Table S1) Age determination of ODP Site 165-1002

A series of 14C measurements in Ocean Drilling Program cores from the tropical Cariaco Basin, which have been correlated to the annual-layer counted chronology for the Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2 (GISP2) ice core, provides a high-resolution calibration of the radiocarbon time scale back to 50,000 years before the present. Independent radiometric dating of events correlated to GISP2 suggests that the calibration is accurate. Reconstructed 14C activities varied substantially during the last glacial period, including sharp peaks synchronous with the Laschamp and Mono Lake geomagnetic field intensity minimal and cosmogenic nuclide peaks in ice cores and marine sediments. Simulations with a geochemical box model suggest that much of the variability can be explained by geomagnetically modulated changes in 14C production rate together with plausible changes in deep-ocean ventilation and the global carbon cycle during glaciation.

Feldspar size measurements of tephra layers from ODP Leg 165 sites

Crystal size measurements have been carried out on tephra fall layers of Miocene to recent age from Sites 998, 999, and 1000 in the western Caribbean Sea. Maximum crystal size is used as a proxy for the grain size characteristics of the layers and an index of atmospheric dispersal from source eruptions. Crystal sizes range from 50 to 650 µm with the majority falling between 200 and 300 µm. All three sites exhibit a coarsening in the grain size of tephra layers with increasing age to the early Miocene that broadly correlates with an increase in the frequency of layers. Analysis of the present lower and upper level atmospheric circulation in the western Caribbean suggests that the layers were derived from source eruptions to the west of the sites somewhere in the Central American region. Minimum distances to these sources are of the order of 700 km. Crystal sizes in tephra layers at these distances are consistent with their derivation from energetic pyroclastic flow-forming eruptions that injected tephra to stratospheric levels by large-scale co-ignimbrite and plinian-style plumes. Coarsening of the layers during the Miocene peak of explosive volcanism cannot be attributed to any major change in paleowind intensity and is taken to represent the occurrence of more energetic eruptions that were able to disperse tephra over larger areas.

Nannofossil datums of ODP Leg 165 holes and nannofossil abundance in ODP Hole 165-998A

A total of 53 calcareous nannofossil datums were detected in Quaternary and Neogene sections recovered during Ocean Drilling Program Leg 165 in the Caribbean Sea. Most of the low-latitude nannofossil zonal markers of Okada and Bukry could be determined at all of the sites. Additionally, size distribution patterns of specimens of Reticulofenestra, a common genus in Neogene and Quaternary sediments, were examined to interpret the biostratigraphic utility of changes in size.

(Table 1) Comparison between bulk ICP-OES measurements and LA-ICP-MS analyses for Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca ratios of Globigerinoides sacculifer from ODP Hole 165-1000A

We constructed a high-resolution Mg/Ca record on the planktonic foraminifer Globigerinoides sacculifer in order to explore the change in sea surface temperature (SST) due to the shoaling of the Isthmus of Panama as well as the impact of secondary factors like diagenesis and large salinity fluctuations. The study covers the latest Miocene and the early Pliocene (5.6-3.9 Ma) and was combined with d18O to isolate changes in sea surface salinity (SSS). Before 4.5 Ma, SSTMg/Ca and SSS show moderate fluctuations, indicating a free exchange of surface ocean water masses between the Pacific and the Atlantic. The increase in d18O after 4.5 Ma represents increasing salinities in the Caribbean due to the progressive closure of the Panamanian Gateway. The increase in Mg/Ca toward values of maximum 7 mmol/mol suggests that secondary influences have played a significant role. Evidence of crystalline overgrowths on the foraminiferal tests in correlation with aragonite, Sr/Ca, and productivity cyclicities indicates a diagenetic overprint on the foraminiferal tests. Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry analyses, however, do not show significantly increased Mg/Ca ratios in the crystalline overgrowths, and neither do calculations based on pore water data conclusively result in significantly elevated Mg/Ca ratios in the crystalline overgrowths. Alternatively, the elevated Mg/Ca ratios might have been caused by salinity as the d18O record of Site 1000 has been interpreted to represent large fluctuations in SSS, and cultivating experiments have shown an increase in Mg/Ca with increasing salinity. We conclude that the Mg/Ca record <4.5 Ma can only reliably be considered for paleoceanographical purposes when the minimum values, not showing any evidence of secondary influences, are used, resulting in a warming of central Caribbean surface water masses after 4.5 Ma of ~2°C.

Age determination of ODP Site 165-1002

An expanded Cariaco Basin 14C chronology is tied to 230Th-dated Hulu Cave speleothem records in order to provide detailed marine-based 14C calibration for the past 50,000 years. The revised, high-resolution Cariaco 14C calibration record agrees well with data from 230Th-dated fossil corals back to 33 ka, with continued agreement despite increased scatter back to 50 ka, suggesting that the record provides accurate calibration back to the limits of radiocarbon dating. The calibration data document highly elevated Delta14C during the Glacial period. Carbon cycle box model simulations show that the majority of observed Delta14C change can be explained by increased 14C production. However, from 45 to 15 ka, Delta14C remains anomalously high, indicating that the distribution of radiocarbon between surface and deep ocean reservoirs was different than it is today. Additional observations of the magnitude, spatial extent and timing of deep ocean Delta14C shifts are critical for a complete understanding of observed Glacial Delta14C variability.