(Table 1, page 1376) Chemical analyses of manganese nodules and crusts from the Pacific Ocean

A compilation of chemical analyses of Pacific Ocean nodules using an x-ray fluorescence technique. The equipment used was a General Electric XRD-5 with a tungsten tube. Lithium fluoride was used as the diffraction element in assaying for all elements above calcium in the atomic table and EDDT was used in conjunction with a helium path for all elements with an atomic number less than calcium. Flow counters were used in conjunction with a pulse height analyzer to eliminate x-ray lines of different but integral orders in gathering count data. The stability of the equipment was found to be excellent by the author. The equipment was calibrated by the use of standard ores made from pure oxide forms of the elements in the nodules and carefully mixed in proportion to the amounts of these elements generally found in the manganese nodules. Chemically analyzed standards of the nodules themselves were also used. As a final check, a known amount of the element in question was added to selected samples of the nodules and careful counts were taken on these samples before and after the addition of the extra amount of the element. The method involved the determination and subsequent use of absorption and activation factors for the lines of the various elements. All the absorption and activation factors were carefully determined using the standard ores. The chemically analyzed samples of the nodules by these methods yielded an accuracy to at least three significant figures.

Annotated record of the detailed examination of Mn deposits from COCOTOW Expedition stations in the intersection of the Siqueiros Transform Fault and the East Pacific Rise

A near-bottom geological and geophysical survey was conducted at the western intersection of the Siqueiros Transform Fault and the East Pacific Rise. Transform-fault shear appears to distort the east flank of the rise crest in an area north of the fracture zone. In ward-facing scarps trend 335° and do not parallel the regional axis of spreading. Small-scale scarps reveal a hummocky bathymetry. The center of spreading is not a central peak but rather a 20-40 m deep, 1 km wide valley superimposed upon an 8 km wide ridge-crest horst. Small-scale topography indicates widespread volcanic flows within the valley. Two 0.75 km wide blocks flank the central valley. Fault scarps are more dominant on the western flank. Their alignment shifts from directions intermediate to parallel to the regional axis of spreading (355°). A median ridge within the fracture zone has a fault-block topography similar to that of the East Pacific Rise to the north. Dominant eastward-facing scarps trending 335° are on the west flank. A central depression, 1 km wide and 30 m deep, separates the dominantly fault-block regime of the west from the smoother topography of the east flank. This ridge originated by uplift due to faulting as well as by volcanism. Detailed mapping was concentrated in a perched basin (Dante's Hole) at the intersection of the rise crest and the fracture zone. Structural features suggest that Dante's Hole is an area subject to extreme shear and tensional drag resulting from transition between non-rigid and rigid crustal behavior. Normal E-W crustal spreading is probably taking place well within the northern confines of the basin. Possible residual spreading of this isolated rise crest coupled with shear drag within the transform fault could explain the structural isolation of Dante's Hole from the remainder of the Siqueiros Transform Fault.

(Table 1, page 754) Estimated concentrations of various elements in nineteen manganese nodules

Using spectrochemical techniques Fe, Si, Mg, Co, Ni, Cu, V, Mo, Ti and Tl have been estimated in nineteen manganese nodules, eight from the Atlantic ocean, seven from the Pacific ocean and four from the Indian ocean. Though data on more samples are required before firm and detailed conclusions can be made about the distribution of elements in manganese nodules, several distinct features appear when the data on the nineteen samples are examined. Certain elements appear to enrich more strongly than others. For example, relative to igneous rocks Mo is much more strongly enriched than V. For several elements (Ni, Cu and particularly Co and Tl) the degree of enrichment in two Fe-low nodules is far smaller than in the other nodules. The magnitude of dispersion of concentration appears to vary considerably for different elements; thus, whereas variation of concentration of V is relatively small, that of Ni, Cu, Co and Tl is far larger. The statistical nature of the distribution of Fe in manganese nodules appears to be characteristic and different from that of the other elements studied so far. Of the possible inter-element relationships examined that of Ni-Cu appears to be the most strongly developed.

(Table 2, page 2172) Chemical analytical data on thirty-two manganese nodules and crusts

Mn, Fe, Ca, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Sn, Tl, Pb and Bi have been estimated in thirty-two nodules from the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans. Various features about the composition of manganese nodules are discussed: element abundances, degrees of enrichment, inter-element relationships (notably between Ni and Cu, and between Zn and Cd), regional variations and some aspects of statistical distribution.

(Table 8, page 38) Spectrographic analyses of deep sea manganese nodules from the Pacific and Indian Oceans

In an earlier paper by two of the authors the conclusion was reached that the 33 recognized species of oxides of Mn could be separated into 3 groups: 1) those which appeared to be persistently supergene in origin, 2) those which appeared to be persistently hypogene, and 3) those which were supergene in some localities and hypogene in other localities. When that paper was written, there were available about 250 X-ray diffraction analyses of mineral specimens, also 35 complete and about 150 partial chemical analyses. The conclusions of that paper were based upon the interpretation of the geologic conditions under which these specimens occurred. Late in the preparation of that paper, it seemed worthwhile to make numerous semiquantitative analyses of specimens, largely from 9 western [U.S.A] states, selected carefully from 5 groups of geologic environments, in the hope that the frequency and percentages of some elements might be distinctive of the several geologic groups. For this purpose, 95 specimens were selected from the 5 groups, as follows: 19 specimens interpreted as supergene oxides by the geologists who collected them, 35 specimens of hypogene vein oxides, 22 specimens of Mn-bearing hot spring aprons, 9 specimens of stratified oxides, and 10 specimens of deep-sea nodules. The spectrographic analyses here recorded indicate that a group of elements - W, Ba, Sr, Be, As, Sb, Tl, and Ge - are present more commonly, and largely in higher percentages, in the hypogene oxide than in the supergene oxides and thus serve to indicate different sources of the Mn. Also, the frequency and percentages of some of these elements indicate a genetic relation of the manganese oxides in hypogene veins, hot spring aprons, and stratified deposits. The analyses indicate a declining percentage of some elements from depth to the surface in these 3 related groups and increasing percentages of some other elements. It is concluded that some of the elements in deep-sea nodules indicate that sources other than rocks decomposed on the continents, probably vulcanism on the floors of the seas, have contributed to their formation.

Analysis of manganese nodules in lakes of Scotland

During the "Challenger" Deep-Sea Exploring Expedition a great many peculiar-looking manganese nodules or concretions were dredged from the floor of the ocean at great depths, chiefly in the Red Clay areas of the Pacific. In the present paper we propose to point out the distribution of the oxides of manganese in the geological series of rocks, in fresh and sea water, and in marine deposits, with special reference to our explorations in the lochs of the west of Scotland; to give an account of investigations undertaken to ascertain the source of the manganese present in marine deposits in the form of the higher oxides, and thereafter to discuss the various views that have been advanced to explain the formation and distribution of manganese concretions in marine deposits in general.

Average chemical composition of lake ores of Finland and North-Eastern Russia extracted in the late nineteen century

According to Solitander C. P., the extraction of lake ore from Eastern Finland lakes considerably rose in the 1870 - 1880 period in relation with the increasing demand from the ironworks being operated in the region. In St. Petersburg, Nicholas Putiloff, a business tycoon and State Minister owned the Haapakosken, Huutokosken and Oravin ironworks which were using 99% of lake ore for their supply. During this period the biggest production came from lake Sysmäjärvi in the Joroinen county with 3676 tonnes at an average concentration of 35.94% Fe, 4.55% Mn, 0.26% P and 0.04% S. The Värtsilä ironworks used the lake ore coming from 49 lakes, the biggest production coming from lake Loitimojärvi with 14535 tonnes of ore with a medium at concentration of 30.8% Fe. Möhkö ironworks took advantage of the 59 lakes, the largest of which was from lake Koitere with 4301 tonnes at 41.3% Fe. The Karttula ironworks were also significant in the consumption of ferromanganese lake ore.

(Table II, page 668-669) Distribution of elements between minerals soluble in 1M Hydroxylamine hydrochloride (Reducible); in 1m HCL (Acid-soluble) and in the insoluble residue of manganese nodules

Attempts to classify pelagic sediments have been based either on appearance and composition, or on the ultimate origin of the components. In particular it appears feasible to distinguish minerals which crystallized in sea-water from those which formed in magmas, in hydrothermal solution, or by weathering under acidic conditions. It is the case of iron and manganese oxide mineral aggregates which constitute one of the major types of rock encountered on the ocean floor; according to Menard (unpublished) about 10% of the pelagic area of the Pacific is covered by such nodules. The nodules consist of intimately intergrown crystallites of different minerals among those identified, besides detrital minerals and organic matter, are opal, goethite, rutile, anatase, barite, nontronite, and at least three manganese oxide minerals of major importance. Arrhenius and Korkisch (1959) have attempted to separate from each other the different minerals constituting the nodules, in order to establish the details of their structure and the localization of the heavy metal ions. The results demonstrate (Table II) that copper and nickel are concentrated in the manganese oxide phases concentrated in the reducible fraction. Cobalt, part of the nickel and most of the chromium are distributed between these and the acid-soluble group of the non-manganese minerals, dominated by goethite and disordered FeOOH.