(Table 1) Geochemistry of the ETM-2 section from IODP Hole 302-M0004A

During the early Eocene, a series of short-term global warming events ("hyperthermals") occurred in response to the rapid release of carbon into the oceans and atmosphere. In order to investigate the response of ocean redox to global warming, we have determined the molybdenum isotope compositions (d98/95Mo) of samples spanning one such hyperthermal (Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 (ETM-2, 54.1 Ma)), from Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Expedition 302 Site M0004A in the Arctic Ocean. The highest d98/95Mo in our sample set (2.00 ± 0.11 per mil) corresponds to the development of local euxinia at Site M0004A during the peak of ETM-2, which we interpret as recording the global seawater d98/95Mo at that time. The ETM-2 seawater d98/95Mo is indistinguishable from a recent estimate of seawater d98/95Mo from an earlier hyperthermal (Paleocene Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM, 55.9 Ma), d98/95Mo = 2.08 ± 0.11 per mil). We argue that the similarity in seawater d98/95Mo during ETM-2 and the PETM was caused by the development of transient euxinia in the Arctic Ocean during each hyperthermal that allowed sediments accumulating in this basin to capture the long-term d98/95Mo of early Eocene seawater. Our new data therefore place a minimum constraint on the magnitude of transient global seafloor deoxygenation during early Eocene hyperthermals.

Mangrove cover in the Red Sea (1972-2013)

Across the Earth, mangroves play an important role in coastal protection, both as nurseries and carbon sinks. However, due to various human and environmental impacts, the coverage of mangroves is declining on a global scale. The Red Sea is in the northern-most area of the distribution range of mangroves. Little is known about the surface covered by mangroves at this northern limit or about the changes experienced by Red Sea mangroves. We sought to study changes in the coverage of Red Sea mangroves by using multi-temporal Landsat data (1972, 2000 and 2013). Interestingly, our results show that there has been no decline in mangrove stands in the Red Sea but rather a slight increase. The area covered by mangroves is about 69 km**2 along the African shore and 51 km**2 along the Arabian Peninsula shore. From 1972 to 2013, the area covered by mangroves increased by about 0.29%/y. We conclude that the trend exhibited by Red Sea mangroves departs from the general global decline of mangroves. Along the Red Sea, mangroves expanded by 12% over the 41 years from 1972 to 2013. Losses to Red Sea mangroves, mostly due to coastal development, have been compensated by afforestation projects.

Updated bathymetric chart of the East Aral Sea

The Aral Sea is located in an arid region with much sand and salt deposits in the surrounding barren open land. Hence, significant displacements of sediments into the lakebed by the action of wind, water, gravity, or snow are likely. The bathymetry of the lake was last observed in the 1960s, and within the last half century, the structure of the lakebed has changed. Based on satellite observations of the temporal changes of shoreline (Landsat optical remote sensing) and water level (multi-mission satellite altimetry) over more than one decade an updated bathymetric chart for the East Basin of the Aral Sea has been generated. During this time, the geometry of the shallow East Basin experienced strong fluctuations due to the occurrence of periods of drying and strong inflow. By the year 2014 the East Basin fell dry. The dynamic behavior of the basin allowed for estimating the lake's bathymetry from a series of satellite-based information. The river mouth made its impression in the present East Aral Sea, because its shrinking led to the inflow of much sediment into the lake's interior. In addition, salt deposits along the shorelines increased the corresponding elevation, a phenomenon that is more pronounced in the reduced lakebed because of increased salinity. It must be noted that height estimates from satellite altimetry were only possible down to a minimum elevation of 27 m above sea level due to a lack of reliable altimetry data over the largely reduced water surface. In order to construct a complete bathymetric chart of the lakebed of the East Aral Sea heights below 27 m were obtained solely from Landsat optical images following the SRB (Selected Region Boundary) approach as described by Singh et al. (2015).

Mapped distribution of tidal flats across China, Manchuria and Korea (1952-1964)

A map of the tidal flats of China, Manchuria and Korea depicted in US Army Map Service Series L500, L542 and L552 topographic maps (compiled between 1950 and 1964). The topographic maps were georeferenced against prominent topographical features in L1T processed Landsat imagery and the foreshore flat class was manually delineated. For further information refer to Murray et. al. (2014).

Improved digital elevation model (DEM) for Lake Eyre, Australia

Here we demonstrate the applicability of using altimetry data and Landsat imagery to provide the most accurate digital elevation model (DEM) of Australia's largest playa lake - Lake Eyre. We demonstrate through the use of geospatial techniques a robust assessment of lake area and volume of recent lake-filling episodes whilst also providing the most accurate estimates of area and volume for larger lake filling episodes that occurred throughout the last glacial cycle. We highlight that at a depth of 25 m Lake Mega-Eyre would merge with the adjacent Lake Mega-Frome to form an immense waterbody with a combined area of almost 35,000 km**2 and a combined volume of ~520 km**3. This would represent a vast water body in what is now the arid interior of the Australian continent. The improved DEM is more reliable from a geomorphological and hydrological perspective and allows a more accurate assessment of water balance under the modern hydrological regime. The results presented using GLAS/ICESat data suggest that earlier historical soundings were correct and the actual lowest topographic point in Australia is -15.6 m below sea level. The results also contrast nicely the different basin characteristics of two adjacent lake systems; Lake Eyre and Lake Frome.

The early Eocene global warming events: Implications from ODP Leg 208 Walvis Ridge depth transect

Five sections drilled in multiple holes over a depth transect of more than 2200 m at the Walvis Ridge (SE Atlantic) during Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 208 resulted in the first complete early Paleogene deep-sea record. Here we present high-resolution stratigraphic records spanning a ~4.3 million yearlong interval of the late Paleocene to early Eocene. This interval includes the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum (PETM) as well as the Eocene thermal maximum (ETM) 2 event. A detailed chronology was developed with nondestructive X-ray fluorescence (XRF) core scanning records and shipboard color data. These records were used to refine the shipboard-derived spliced composite depth for each site and with a record from ODP Site 1051 were then used to establish a continuous time series over this interval. Extensive spectral analysis reveals that the early Paleogene sedimentary cyclicity is dominated by precession modulated by the short (100 kyr) and long (405 kyr) eccentricity cycles. Counting of precession-related cycles at multiple sites results in revised estimates for the duration of magnetochrons C24r and C25n. Direct comparison between the amplitude modulation of the precession component derived from XRF data and recent models of Earth's orbital eccentricity suggests that the onset of the PETM and ETM2 are related to a 100-kyr eccentricity maximum. Both events are approximately a quarter of a period offset from a maximum in the 405-kyr eccentricity cycle, with the major difference that the PETM is lagging and ETM2 is leading a 405-kyr eccentricity maximum. Absolute age estimates for the PETM, ETM2, and the magnetochron boundaries that are consistent with recalibrated radiometric ages and recent models of Earth's orbital eccentricity cannot be precisely determined at present because of too large uncertainties in these methods. Nevertheless, we provide two possible tuning options, which demonstrate the potential for the development of a cyclostratigraphic framework based on the stable 405-kyr eccentricity cycle for the entire Paleogene.

(Appendix) Recent surface areas and historical lengths of glaciers from Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, South America

Fluctuations in the length of 72 glaciers in the Northern and Southern Patagonia Icefield (NPI and SPI, respectively) and the Cordillera Darwin Icefield (CDI) were estimated between 1945 and 2005. The information obtained from historical maps based on 1945 aerial photographs was compared to ASTER and Landsat satellite images and to information found in the literature. The majority of glaciers have retreated considerably, with maximum values of 12.2 km for Marinelli Glacier in the CDI, 11.6 km for O'Higgins Glacier in the SPI and 5.7 km for San Rafael Glacier in the NPI. Among the 20 glaciers that have retreated the most relative to their size, small (less than 50 km**2) and medium (between 50 and 200 km**2) glaciers are the most affected. However, no direct relation between glacier retreat and size was found for the 72 glaciers studied. The highest percentage retreat in the CDI was by the CDI-03 Glacier (37.9%) and Marinelli Glacier (37.6%). In the SPI, relative retreats were heterogeneous and fluctuated between 27.2% (Amelia Glacier) and 0.4% (Viedma Glacier). In the NPI, relative retreat was very high for Strindberg and Cachet glaciers (35.9% and 27.6%, respectively) but for the remaining glaciers in this icefield it ranged between 11.8% (Piscis Glacier) and 3.6% (San Quintin Glacier). In addition to surface area, the surface slope (calculated on the basis of the DEM SRTM) was also related to the relative retreat and no straightforward relation was found. From a global point of view, we suggest that glacier retreat in the region is controlled firstly by atmospheric warming, as it has been reported in this area. Besides the general increase in temperature observed, no signal of a geographical pattern for the fluctuations in glacier length was found. Consequently, glaciers appear to initially react to local conditions most probably induced by their exposition, geometry and hypsometry. The heterogeneity of rates of retreat suggests that differences in basin geometry, glacier dynamics and response time are key features to explain fluctuations of each glacier.

High resolution benthic stable-isotope records from ODP Site 1263 and 1262

Recent studies have shown that the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO) was preceded by a series of short-lived global warming events, known as hyperthermals. Here we present high-resolution benthic stable carbon and oxygen isotope records from ODP Sites 1262 and 1263 (Walvis Ridge, SE Atlantic) between ~54 and ~52 million years ago, tightly constraining the character, timing, and magnitude of six prominent hyperthermal events. These events, which include Eocene Thermal Maximum (ETM) 2 and 3, are studied in relation to orbital forcing and long-term trends. Our findings reveal an almost linear relationship between d13C and d18O for all these hyperthermals, indicating that the eccentricity-paced co-variance between deep-sea temperature changes and extreme perturbations in the exogenic carbon pool persisted during these events towards the onset of the EECO, in accord with previous observations for the Paleocene Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) and ETM2. The covariance of d13C and d18O during H2 and I2, which are the second pulses of the "paired" hyperthermal events ETM2-H2 and I1-I2, deviates with respect to the other events. We hypothesize that this could relate to a relatively higher contribution of an isotopically heavier source of carbon, such as peat or permafrost, and/or to climate feedbacks/local changes in circulation. Finally, the d18O records of the two sites show a systematic offset with on average 0.2 per mil heavier values for the shallower Site 1263, which we link to a slightly heavier isotopic composition of the intermediate water mass reaching the northeastern flank of the Walvis Ridge compared to that of the deeper northwestern water mass at Site 1262.

Phytomass and soil carbon storage of different land cover classes in the Usa river basin

This study describes detailed partitioning of phytomass carbon (C) and soil organic carbon (SOC) for four study areas in discontinuous permafrost terrain, Northeast European Russia. The mean aboveground phytomass C storage is 0.7 kg C/m**2. Estimated landscape SOC storage in the four areas varies between 34.5 and 47.0 kg C/m**2 with LCC (land cover classification) upscaling and 32.5-49.0 kg C/m**2 with soil map upscaling. A nested upscaling approach using a Landsat thematic mapper land cover classification for the surrounding region provides estimates within 5 ± 5% of the local high-resolution estimates. Permafrost peat plateaus hold the majority of total and frozen SOC, especially in the more southern study areas. Burying of SOC through cryoturbation of O- or A-horizons contributes between 1% and 16% (mean 5%) of total landscape SOC. The effect of active layer deepening and thermokarst expansion on SOC remobilization is modeled for one of the four areas. The active layer thickness dynamics from 1980 to 2099 is modeled using a transient spatially distributed permafrost model and lateral expansion of peat plateau thermokarst lakes is simulated using geographic information system analyses. Active layer deepening is expected to increase the proportion of SOC affected by seasonal thawing from 29% to 58%. A lateral expansion of 30 m would increase the amount of SOC stored in thermokarst lakes/fens from 2% to 22% of all SOC. By the end of this century, active layer deepening will likely affect more SOC than thermokarst expansion, but the SOC stores vulnerable to thermokarst are less decomposed.

Forest disturbance map for the Carpathian ecoregion, 1984-2012

Detailed knowledge of forest cover dynamics is crucial for many applications from resource management to ecosystem service assessments. Landsat data provides the necessary spatial, temporal and spectral detail to map and analyze forest cover and forest change processes. With the opening of the Landsat archive, new opportunities arise to monitor forest dynamics on regional to continental scales. In this study we analyzed changes in forest types, forest disturbances, and forest recovery for the Carpathian ecoregion in Eastern Europe. We generated a series of image composites at five year intervals between 1985 and 2010 and utilized a hybrid analysis strategy consisting of radiometric change classification, post-classification comparison and continuous index- and segment-based post-disturbance recovery assessment. For validation of the disturbance map we used a point-based accuracy assessment, and assessed the accuracy of our forest type maps using forest inventory data and statistically sampled ground truth data for 2010. Our Carpathian-wide disturbance map achieved an overall accuracy of 86% and the forest type maps up to 73% accuracy. While our results suggested a small net forest increase in the Carpathians, almost 20% of the forests experienced stand-replacing disturbances over the past 25 years. Forest recovery seemed to only partly counterbalance the widespread natural disturbances and clear-cutting activities. Disturbances were most widespread during the late 1980s and early 1990s, but some areas also exhibited extensive forest disturbances after 2000, especially in the Polish, Czech and Romanian Carpathians. Considerable shifts in forest composition occurred in the Carpathians, with disturbances increasingly affecting coniferous forests, and a relative decrease in coniferous and mixed forests. Both aspects are likely connected to an increased vulnerability of spruce plantations to pests and pathogens in the Carpathians. Overall, our results exemplify the highly dynamic nature of forest cover during times of socio-economic and institutional change, and highlight the value of the Landsat archive for monitoring these dynamics.

Air photography Samoylov Island

For the qualitative description of surface properties like vegetation cover or land-water-ratio of Samoylov Island as well as for the evaluation of fetch homogeneity considerations of the eddy covariance measurements and for the up-scaling of chamber flux measurements, a detailed surface classification of the island at the sub-polygonal scale is necessary. However, up to know only grey-scale Corona satellite images from the 1960s with a resolution of 2 x 2 m and recent multi-spectral LandSat images with a resolution of 30 x 30 m were available for this region. Both are not useable for the desired classification because of missing spectral information and inadequate resolution, respectively. During the Lena 2003 expedition, a survey of the island by air photography was carried out in order to obtain images for surface classification. The photographs were taken from a helicopter on 10.07.2002, using a Canon EOS100 reflex camera, a Soligor 19-23 mm lens and colour slide film. The height from which the photographs were taken was approximately 600 meters. Due to limited flight time, not all the area of the island could be photographed and some regions could only be photographed with a slanted view. As a result, the images are of a varying quality and resolution. In Potsdam, after processing the films were scanned using a Nikon LS-2000 scanner at maximal resolution setting. This resulted in a ground resolution of the scanned images of approximately 0.3x0.3 m. The images were subsequently geo-referenced using the ENVI software and a referenced Corona image dating from 18.07.1964 (Spott, 2003). Geo-referencing was only possible for the Holocene river terrace areas; the floodplain regions in the western part of the island could not be referenced due to the lack of ground reference points. In Figure 3.7-1, the aerial view of Samoylov Island composed of the geo-referenced images is shown. Further work is necessary for the classification and interpretation of the images. If possible, air photography surveys will be carried out during future expeditions in order to determine changes in surface pattern and composition.