Age model, raw data and interpolated raw data from proxy records of sediment cores GeoB6007-1 and GeoB6007-2

Here we present a 1200 yr long benthic foraminiferal Mg/Ca based temperature and oxygen isotope record from a ~900 m deep sediment core off northwest Africa to show that atmosphere-ocean interactions in the eastern subpolar gyre are transferred at central water depth into the eastern boundary of the subtropical gyre. Further we link the variability of the NAO (over the past 165 yrs) and solar irradiance (Late Holocene) and their control on subpolar mode water formation to the multidecadal variability observed at mid-depth in the eastern subtropical gyre. Our results show that eastern North Atlantic central waters cooled by up to ~0.8± 0.7 °C and densities decreased by Sigma theta=0.3±0.2 during positive NAO years and during minima in solar irradiance during the Late Holocene. The presented records demonstrate the sensitivity of central water formation to enhanced atmospheric forcing and ice/freshwater fluxes into the eastern subpolar gyre and the importance of central water circulation for cross-gyre climate signal propagation during the Late Holocene.

Benthic foraminifera stable isotope data from the South Pacific sediment cores PS75/059-2 and PS75/056-1

Investigating the inter-basin deep water exchange between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans over glacial-interglacial climate cycles is important for understanding circum-Antarctic Southern Ocean circulation changes and their impact on the global Meridional Overturning Circulation. We use benthic foraminiferal d13C records from the southern East Pacific Rise to characterize the d13C composition of Circumpolar Deep Water in the South Pacific, prior to its transit through the Drake Passage into the South Atlantic. A comparison with published South Atlantic deep water records from the northern Cape Basin suggests a continuous water mass exchange throughout the past 500 ka. Almost identical glacial-interglacial d13C variations imply a common deep water evolution in both basins suggesting persistent Circumpolar Deep Water exchange and homogenization. By contrast, deeper abyssal waters occupying the more southern Cape Basin and the southernmost South Atlantic have lower d13C values during most, but not all, stadial periods. We conclude that these values represent the influence of a more southern water mass, perhaps AABW. During many interglacials and some glacial periods, the gradient between Circumpolar Deep Water and the deeper southern Cape Basin bottom water disappears suggesting either no presence of AABW or indistinguishable d13C values of both water masses.

Geochemistry of sediment cores GeoB13820-1 and GeoB13863-1 from the western South Atlantic

Here, we present results from sediments collected in the Argentine Basin, a non-steady state depositional marine system characterized by abundant oxidized iron within methane-rich layers due to sediment reworking followed by rapid deposition. Our comprehensive inorganic data set shows that iron reduction in these sulfate and sulfide-depleted sediments is best explained by a microbially mediated process-implicating anaerobic oxidation of methane coupled to iron reduction (Fe-AOM) as the most likely major mechanism. Although important in many modern marine environments, iron-driven AOM may not consume similar amounts of methane compared with sulfate-dependent AOM. Nevertheless, it may have broad impact on the deep biosphere and dominate both iron and methane cycling in sulfate-lean marine settings. Fe-AOM might have been particularly relevant in the Archean ocean, >2.5 billion years ago, known for its production and accumulation of iron oxides (in iron formations) in a biosphere likely replete with methane but low in sulfate. Methane at that time was a critical greenhouse gas capable of sustaining a habitable climate under relatively low solar luminosity, and relationships to iron cycling may have impacted if not dominated methane loss from the biosphere.

(Table 1) Nutrient concentrations and carbon isotopes of sea ice segments and brine sampled during Nathaniel B. Palmer cruises NBP98-07 and NBP06-08, Ross Sea

We examined controls on the carbon isotopic composition of sea ice brines and organic matter during cruises to the Ross Sea, Antarctica in November/December 1998 and November/December 2006. Brine samples were analyzed for salinity, nutrients, total dissolved inorganic carbon (sum CO2), and the 13C/12C ratio of Sum CO2 (d13C(sum CO2)). Particulate organic matter from sea ice cores was analyzed for percent particulate organic carbon (POC), percent total particulate nitrogen (TPN), and stable carbon isotopic composition (d13C(POC)). Sum CO2 in sea ice brines ranged from 1368 to 7149 µmol/kg, equivalent to 1483 to 2519 µmol/kg when normalized to 34.5 psu salinity (s sum CO2), the average salinity of Ross Sea surface waters. Sea ice primary producers removed up to 34% of the available sum CO2, an amount much higher than the maximum removal observed in sea ice free water. Carbonate precipitation and CO2 degassing may reduce s sum CO2 by a similar amount (e.g., 30%) in the most hypersaline sea ice environments, although brine volumes are low in very cold ice that supports these brines. Brine d13C(sum CO2) ranged from -2.6 to +8.0 per mil while d13C(POC) ranged from -30.5 to -9.2 per mil. Isotopic enrichment of the sum CO2 pool via net community production accounts for some but not all carbon isotopic enrichment of sea ice POC. Comparisons of s sum CO2, d13C(sum CO2), and d13C(POC) within sea ice suggest that epsilon p (the net photosynthetic fractionation factor) for sea ice algae is ~8 per mil smaller than the epsilon p observed for phytoplankton in open water regions of the Ross Sea. These results have implications for modeling of carbon uptake and transformation in the ice-covered ocean and for reconstruction of past sea ice extent based on stable isotopic composition of organic matter in sediment cores.

Mineralogical, geochemical, and lipid biomarker study of cabonate precipitates at station GeoB9908-1

Carbonate precipitates recovered from 2,000 m water depth at the Dolgovskoy Mound (Shatsky Ridge, north eastern Black Sea) were studied using mineralogical, geochemical and lipid biomarker analyses. The carbonates differ in shape from simple pavements to cavernous structures with thick microbial mats attached to their lower side and within cavities. Low d13C values measured on carbonates (-41 to -32 per mill V-PDB) and extracted lipid biomarkers indicate that anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) played a crucial role in precipitating these carbonates. The internal structure of the carbonates is dominated by finely laminated coccolith ooze and homogeneous clay layers, both cemented by micritic high-magnesium calcite (HMC), and pure, botryoidal, yellowish low-magnesium calcite (LMC) grown in direct contact to microbial mats. d18O measurements suggest that the authigenic HMC precipitated in equilibrium with the Black Sea bottom water while the yellowish LMC rims have been growing in slightly 18O-depleted interstitial water. Although precipitated under significantly different environmental conditions, especially with respect to methane availability, all analysed carbonate samples show lipid patterns that are typical for ANME-1 dominated AOM consortia, in the case of the HMC samples with significant contributions of allochthonous components of marine and terrestrial origin, reflecting the hemipelagic nature of the primary sediment.

Averages and ranges of paleoenvironmental proxy records of ODP Hole 108-658C (Table 1)

Several high-resolution proxy environmental records have been obtained for the last 35 kyr from ODP Hole 658C, a well-studied site ca. 200 km off Cap Blanc, NW Africa. The collective assessment based on the marine proxies (UK'37 SST, contents of TOC and chlorins, Upwelling Radiolarian Index and the percentage of Florisphaera profunda), surprisingly indicates that the last glacial maximum (LGM) was characterized by warmer sea surface temperature (SST), weaker upwelling, and lower marine productivity, compared with the preceding older glacial and subsequent deglaciation periods. Of the terrigenous proxies, the mean grain size of the non-carbonate fraction and the terrigenous alkane content indicate that wind strength and aridity were high. The weaker upwelling at the 658 site during the LGM may have resulted from changes in the strength and direction of the wind systems and/or shifts in the position and geometry of the upwelling cell.

Sulphate and d34S in pore waters and d13C, d18O and mineral composition of carbonate nodules from ODP Leg 188 sites

Carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of authigenic carbonate nodules or layers reflect the diagenetic conditions at the time of nodule growth. The shallowest samples of carbonate nodules and dissolved inorganic carbon of pore water samples beneath the sulfate reduction zone (0-160 meters below seafloor [mbsf]) at Site 1165 have extremely negative d13C values (-50 per mil and -62 per mil, respectively). These negative d13C values indicate nodule formation in association with anaerobic methane oxidation coupled with sulfate reduction. The 34S of residual sulfate at Site 1165 shows only minor 34S enrichment (+6 per mil), even with complete sulfate reduction. This small degree of apparent 34S enrichment is due to extreme "open-system" sulfate reduction, with sulfate abundantly resupplied by diffusion from overlying seawater. Ten calcite nodules from Site 1165 contain minor quartz and feldspar and have d13C values ranging from -49.7 per mil to -8.2 per mil. The nodules with the most negative d13C values currently are at depths of 273 to 350 mbsf and must have precipitated from carbonate largely derived from subsurface anaerobic methane oxidation. The processes of sulfate reduction coupled with methane oxidation in sediments of Hole 1165B are indicated by characteristic concentration and isotopic (d34S and d13C) profiles of dissolved sulfate and bicarbonate. Three siderite nodules from Site 1166 contain feldspar and mica and one has significant carbonate-apatite. The siderite has d13C values ranging from -15.3 per mil to -7.6 per mil. These siderite nodules probably represent early diagenetic carbonate precipitation during microbial methanogenesis.

Lithology, stage, organic carbon, d13C, hydrocarbons and fatty acids at DSDP Hole 93-603B

Organic-matter-rich Upper Cretaceous claystones from DSDP Hole 603B, lower continental rise, had organic carbon values ranging from 1.7 to 13.7%, C/N ratios from 32 to 72, and d13C values from -23.5 to -27.1 per mil. Lipid class maxima for the unbound alkanes (C29 and C31), unbound fatty acids (C28 and C30), and bound fatty acids (C24, C26 , and C28) and the strong odd-carbon and even-carbon preferences, respectively, suggested that the organic matter in these sediments was partially the result of input from continental plant waxes. Transport of the organic-matter-rich sediments to the deep sea from the near-shore environment probably resulted from turbiditic flow under oxygen-stressed conditions.