Integrated pest management in multi-story public housing for the elderly in Houston, Texas

Integrated pest management is a viable alternative to traditional pest control methods. A paired sample design was utilized to measure the effect of IPM education on the number of cockroaches in a 200 unit, seven story public housing building for the elderly in Houston, TX. Glue traps were placed in 71 randomly selected apartments (5traps/unit) and left in place for two nights. Baseline cockroach counts were shared with the property manager, maintenance/janitorial staff, service coordinator, pest control professional and tenant representatives at the end of a one day “Integrated Pest Management in Multi-Family Housing” training course.^ There was a significant decrease in the average number of cockroaches after IPM education and implementation of IPM principles (P < 0.0003). Positive changes in behavior by members of the IPM team and changes in the housing authority operational plan were also found. Paired t-tests comparing the difference between mean cockroach counts at baseline and follow-up by location within the apartment all demonstrated a significant decrease in the number of cockroaches.^ Results supported the premise that IPM education and the implementation of IPM principles are effective measures to change pest control behaviors and control cockroaches. Cockroach infestations in multi-story housing are not solely determined by the actions of individual tenants. The actions of other residents, property managers and pest control professionals are also important factors in pest control.^ Findings support the implementation of IPM education and the adoption of IPM practices by public housing authorities. This study adds to existing evidence that clear communication of policies, a team approach and a commitment to ongoing inspection and monitoring of pests combined with corrective action to eliminate food, water and harborage and the judicial use of low risk pesticides have the potential to improve the living conditions of elderly residents living in public housing.^

The illness experiences of African Americans residing in an inner city community, Houston, Texas

This dissertation documents health and illness in the context of daily life circumstances and structural conditions faced by African American families living in Clover Heights (pseudonym), an inner city public housing project in the Third Ward, Houston, Texas. Drawing from Kleinman's (1980) model of culturally defined health care systems and using the holistic-content approach to narrative analysis (Lieblich, Tuval- Mashiach, & Zilber, 1998) the purpose of this research was to explore the ways in which social and health policy, economic mobility, the inner city environment, and cultural beliefs intertwined with African American families' health related ideas, behaviors, and practices. I recruited six families using a convenience sampling method (Schensul, Schensul, & LeCompte, 1999) and followed them for fourteen months (2010–2011). Family was defined as a household unit, or those living in the same residence, short or long-term. Single, African American women ranging in age from 29–80 years headed all families. All but one family included children or grandchildren 18 years of age and younger, or children or other relative 18 years of age and older. I also recruited six residents with who I became acquainted over the course of the project. I collected data using traditional ethnographic methods including participant-observation, archive review, field notes, mapping, free-listing, in-depth interviews, and life history interviews. ^ Doing ethnography afforded the families who participated in this project the freedom to construct their own experiences of health and illness. My role centered on listening to, learning from, and interpreting participants' narratives, exploring similarities and differences within and across families' experiences. As the research progressed, a pattern concerning diagnosis and pharmacotherapy for children's behavioral and emotional problems, particularly attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and pediatric bipolar disorder (PBD), emerged from my formal interactions with participants and my informal interactions with residents. The findings presented in this dissertation document this pattern, focusing on how mothers and families interpreted, organized, and ascribed meaning to their experiences of ADHD and PBD. ^ In the first manuscript presented here, I documented three mothers' narrative constructions of a child's diagnosis with and pharmacotherapy for ADHD or PBD. Using Gergen's (1997) relational perspective I argued that mothers' knowledge and experiences of ADHD and PBD were not individually constructed, but were linguistically and discursively constituted through various social interactions and relationships, including family, spirituality and faith, community norms, and expert systems of knowledge. Mothers' narratives revealed the complexity of children's behavioral and emotional problems, the daily trials of living through these problems, how they coped with adversity and developed survival strategies, and how they interacted with various institutional authorities involved in evaluating, diagnosing, and encouraging pharmaceutical intervention for children's behavior. The findings highlight the ways in which mothers' social interactions and relationships introduced a scientific language and discourse for explaining children's behavior as mental illness, the discordances between expert systems of knowledge and mothers' understandings, and how discordances reflected mothers' ‘microsources of power’ for producing their own stories and experiences. ^ In the second manuscript presented here, I documented the ways in which structural factors, including gender, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, coupled with a unique cultural and social standpoint (Collins, 1990/2009) influenced the strategies this group of African American mothers employed to understand and respond to ADHD or PBD. The most salient themes related to mother-child relationships coalesced around mothers' beliefs about the etiology of ADHD and PBD, ‘conceptualizing responsibility,’ and ‘protection-survival.’ The findings suggest that even though mothers' strategies varied, they were in pursuit of a common goal. Mothers' challenged the status quo, addressing children's behavioral and emotional problems in the ways that made the most sense to them, specifically protecting their children from further marginalization in society more so than believing these were the best options for their children.^

Household Hardships, Public Programs, and Their Associations with the Health and Development of Very Young Children: Insights from Children’s HealthWatch

America’s low-income families struggle to protect their children from multiple threats to their health and growth. Many research and advocacy groups explore the health and educational effects of food insecurity, but less is known about these effects on very young children. Children’s HealthWatch, a group of pediatric clinicians and public health researchers, has continuously collected data on the effects of food insecurity alone and in conjunction with other household hardships since 1998. The group’s peer reviewed research has shown that a number of economic risks at the household level, including food, housing and energy insecurity, tend to be correlated. These insecurities alone or in conjunction increase the risk that a young child will suffer various negative health consequences, including increases in lifetime hospitalizations, parental report of fair or poor health,1 or risk for developmental delays.2 Child food insecurity is an incremental risk indicator above and beyond the risk imposed by household-level food insecurity. The Children’sHealthwatch research also suggests public benefits programs modify some of these effects for families experiencing hardships. This empirical evidence is presented in a variety of public venues outside the usual scientific settings, such as congressional hearings, to support the needs of America’s most vulnerable population through policy change. Children’s HealthWatch research supports legislative solutions to food insecurity, including sustained funding for public programs and re-evaluation of the use of the Thrifty Food Plan as the basis of SNAP benefits calculations. Children’s HealthWatch is one of many models to support the American Academy of Pediatrics’ call to “stand up, speak up, and step up for children.”3 No isolated group or single intervention will solve child poverty or multiple hardships. However, working collaboratively each group has a role to play in supporting the health and well-being of young children and their families. 1. Cook JT, Frank DA, Berkowitz C, et al. Food insecurity is associated with adverse health outcomes among human infants and toddlers. J Nutr. 2004;134:1432-1438. 2. Rose-Jacobs R, Black MM, Casey PH, et al. Household food insecurity: associations with at-risk infant and toddler development. Pediatrics. 2008;121:65-72. 3. AAP leader says to stand up, speak up, and step up for child health [news release]. Boston, MA: American Academy of Pediatrics; October 11, 2008. http://www2.aap.org/pressroom/nce/nce08childhealth.htm. Accessed January 1, 2012.

The construction of aging and health in older African American women

Persistence of racial and ethnic health disparities and governmental policies based on outdated ideas of aging call for inclusive approaches to the study of elder African Americans. The lived experiences of aging among urban, poor African American women, who comprise a vulnerable population, are not well known, as most studies focus on mainstream populations. Gerontological studies have tended to employ methods that collapse contextual information for ease of analysis, thus failing to capture nuanced information critically relevant to health of marginalized groups. Few researchers have been successful highlighting the importance of local knowledge, resilience, and resources for health by using participatory methods with older Black women. This study utilizes participatory principles to gather discursive data from nine older African American women, engaged in three generational cohorts: those born around World War II, women born after the great depression, and those born before the great depression. Videotaped and transcribed conversations of cohorts were analyzed in search of contextual factors that influence their experience of aging and health. As women responded to general themes that provoked their talk about their lives, they helped answer the study's questions: How do older African American women make sense of their aging experience? What are some of the important social and cultural influences that shape the construction of aging and health by these women? Are generational discourse groups an effective tool for exploring changes in the experiences of aging? A key finding demonstrated rich heterogeneity of experiences with strong generational influences on the construction of aging and health. The participants' moral orders comprised of traditional values of family, reinforced by personal experiences and the church, have guided their lives through oppression and stress but appear to be failing younger women who have greater exposure to new environmental pressures. Limited time and the size of the study were weaknesses although the women's interest in the study and their participation were gratifying. The participants served to highlight the importance of recognizing generational and other contextual factors in formation of ideas of aging and likelihood of additional challenges to the experience of old age among older, poorer, African Americans. ^

Dr. William Gorgas and his style of management against yellow fever during the construction of the Panama Canal: A historical case study

This study describes the style of management of Dr. William Gorgas as he led the public health effort to reduce diseases to a level that permitted the completion of the Panama Canal construction. Initially, Gorgas was skeptical of the mosquito vector theory. He fully accepted this theory after participating in Walter Reed’s massive cleanup of Havana, Cuba during the Spanish American War of 1898. During 1905 to 1914, Gorgas was selected to lead the sanitary effort during the construction of the Panama Canal. The lessons learned from this historical case study provide public health administrators with guidance to effectively lead current and future infectious diseases threats. Understanding styles of management within the context of disease control is essential in tackling epidemics like yellow fever and other infectious diseases. ^

A descriptive study on Hurricanes Katrina and Rita evacuees participating in the Harris County Housing Authority Disaster Housing Assistance Program

Natural disasters occur in various forms such as hurricanes, tsunamis, earthquakes, outbreaks, etc. The most unsettling aspect of a natural disaster is that it can strike at any moment. Over the past decade, our society has experienced an alarming increase of natural disasters. How to expeditiously respond and recover from natural disasters has become a precedent question for public health officials. To date, the most recent natural disaster was the January 12, 2010 earthquake in Haiti; however the most memorable was that of Hurricane Katrina (“Haiti Earthquake”, 2010). ^ This study provides insight on the need to develop a National Disaster Response and Recovery Program which effectively responds to natural disasters. The specific aims of this paper were to (1) observe the government’s role on federal, state and local levels in assisting Hurricanes Katrina and Rita evacuees, (2) assess the prevalence of needs among Hurricanes Katrina and Rita families participating in the Disaster Housing Assistance Program (DHAP) and (3) describe the level of progress towards “self sufficiency” for the DHAP families receiving case management social services. ^ Secondary data from a cross-sectional “Needs Assessment” questionnaire were analyzed. The questionnaire was administered initially and again six months later (follow-up) by H.A.U.L. case managers. The “Needs Assessment” questionnaire collected data regarding participants’ education, employment, transportation, child care, health resources, income, permanent housing and disability needs. Case managers determined the appropriate level of social services required for each family based on the data collected from the “Needs Assessment” questionnaire. ^ Secondary data provided by the H.A.U.L. were analyzed to determine the prevalence of needs among the DHAP families. In addition, differences measured between the initial and follow-up (at six months) questionnaires were analyzed to determine statistical significance between case management services provided and prevalence of needs among the DHAP families from initial to 6 months later at follow-up. The data analyzed describe the level of progress made by these families to achieve program “self sufficiency” (see Appendix A). Disaster assistance programs which first address basic human needs; then socioeconomic needs may offer an essential tool in aiding disaster affected communities quickly recover from natural disasters. ^

Public service use by residents of Jackson Hinds Gardens before and after enrollment

Homelessness is associated with high use of public services such as health care and criminal justice services. Intervention designs to reverse homelessness have broadly fallen into two categories: either standard care which employs requisitely addressing the causes of homelessness, or housing first, which emphasizes provision of permanent housing without requisitely addressing the causes of homelessness. Multiple cities have recently commenced housing first interventions. Locally, Houston’s first housing first development is the Jackson Hinds Gardens project. The purpose of this study is to analyze the public service use of residents of housing first in Houston. Residents of Jackson Hinds Gardens who have been enrolled for at least 6 months were evaluated for public service use for an equal amount of time preceding and during their residence at Jackson Hinds. Resident interactions with county health services and criminal justice entities were determined by electronic database searches; these data were supplemented by life experience interview data. Service usage values pre- and post-enrollment at Jackson Hinds Gardens were compared by paired t-test analyses. We found that ER and inpatient usage decreased following enrollment in Jackson Hinds, although these reductions were not significant. In contrast, outpatient care and number of medications significantly increased following enrollment. These analyses inform on the effects of housing first in another major city, as well as informing the ethical considerations regarding housing first versus standard care. ^

The social construction of infant mortality: From grassroots to medicalization

Infant mortality as a problematic situation has been recognized for some 130 years in one form or another. It has undergone various changes in its empirical dimensions relative to whom we study within the population, what we study--low birth-weight vs. pre-term births--and how we study it--whether demographically or medically. An analysis of the process by which the condition was raised by claims makers as an intolerable situation among America's urban residents reveals that demographic and medical data were sparse. Nonetheless, a judgement about the meaning and significance of the condition was made, and that interpretation led to the promulgation of systems to both document and address the condition as it has come to be defined.^ This investigation depicts the historical context and natural history of infant mortality as one of a number of social problems that came to be defined through the interplay among groups and individuals making claims and how their claims came to the public policy agenda as worthy of collective resources--who won, who lost and why. The process of social definition focuses attention on the claims makers and the ways they contrast the meaning, origins and remedies for this troubling condition. The historical context becomes the frame of reference for understanding the actions of the claims makers and the meaning and significance they attached to the problem.^ We purport that "context" provides a closer reality than disjoined "value free" accounts. Context provides the evidence for the definition, who participated in the process, why and by what means.^ The role of women in the definitional process reveals the differences in approaches utilized by the women of the settlement house reform movement and African-American women working at the grass-roots. Much of the work done by these two groups provided options to the problem's remedy; however, their differences paved the way to our current (principally medically-oriented) definition and its inherent limitations. ^

Nitrogen dioxide exposures among a selected group of residents of substandard housing in Houston, Texas

Nitrogen dioxide (NO$\sb2)$ levels in sixteen substandard houses located in Houston, Texas were examined. The classification of the houses as substandard was based on an assessment of structural integrity which would affect air exchange rates. In these homes, unvented gas space heaters were operated as the primary source of heat.^ The Ogawa passive sampling device was used to measure NO$\sb2$ concentrations over 24 to 48-hour periods during generally cold weather. A sampler was placed in the kitchen and bedroom of each house. The female head of household was asked to wear a monitor during area monitoring to assess her personal exposure. Outdoor levels of NO$\sb2$ were also measured.^ Mean (standard deviation) levels of kitchen, bedroom and personal exposures were 280 (125) ppb, 256 (155) ppb and 164 (102) ppb, respectively. Additional short-term ($<$24 hours) samples were measured in three houses. The mean level of NO$\sb2$ measured outdoors was 51 ppb over the course of the study.^ The measurements obtained with the Ogawa sampler were compared to those levels obtained using a reference method (chemiluminescence). Outdoor levels measured with the diffusion samplers were 48% higher.^ These results suggest that wintertime NO$\sb2$ levels within substandard houses using gas appliances for heating and cooking are extremely elevated. Further work is needed to investigate the prevalence of possible health effects associated with these exposures. ^

AN INVESTIGATION OF VOLATILE ORGANIC AIR CONTAMINANTS IN THE INDOOR MANUFACTURED HOUSING ENVIRONMENT (TEXAS)

Manufactured housing has been found to have substantial levels of formaldehyde in the indoor air. Because mobile homes are more affordable than conventional housing, there has been a large increase in their use in the U.S. This increase in mobile home use has been substantial in the sunbelt regions such as Texas, where high temperatures and humidities may enhance out-gassing of formaldehyde and other volatile organic compounds from construction and furnishing materials and increase any potential health hazards.^ The influences of environmental, architectural and temporal factors on the presence of indoor formaldehyde and other organic compounds were investigated in conjunction with the Texas Indoor Air Quality Study of manufactured housing. A matched pair of mobile homes, one with electric heating and cooking utilities and the other with propane gas utilities, were used for a series of controlled experiments over a fourteen month period from October, 1982 through November, 1983.^ Over this fourteen month period formaldehyde levels decreased approximately 33%. Daily fluctuations of 20% to 40% were observed even with a constant indoor temperature. An increase in indoor temperature of 8(DEGREES)C doubled the measured formaldehyde concentration. Opening windows resulted in decreases of indoor formaldehyde levels of up to 50%. Studies of the impact of propane as a cooking source showed no increase in formaldehyde levels with stove use.^ The presence and concentration of selected volatile organic compounds is influenced greatest by occupancy. Occupants continually open and close windows and doors, vary the operation and settings (temperature) of air control systems, and vary in their selection of furnishings and use of consumer products, which may act as sources of indoor air contaminants. ^

Endemic tuberculosis, the homeless, and public transportation: A merging of geographical information systems surveillance and the Houston Tuberculosis Initiative Surveillance project

To reach the goals established by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) and the Centers for Disease Control's (CDC) STOP TB USA, measures must be taken to curtail a future peak in Tuberculosis (TB) incidence and speed the currently stagnant rate of TB elimination. Both efforts will require, at minimum, the consideration and understanding of the third dimension of TB transmission: the location-based spread of an airborne pathogen among persons known and unknown to each other. This consideration will require an elucidation of the areas within the U.S. that have endemic TB. The Houston Tuberculosis Initiative (HTI) was a population-based active surveillance of confirmed Houston/Harris County TB cases from 1995–2004. Strengths in this dataset include the molecular characterization of laboratory confirmed cases, the collection of geographic locations (including home addresses) frequented by cases, and the HTI time period that parallels a decline in TB incidence in the United States (U.S.). The HTI dataset was used in this secondary data analysis to implement a GIS analysis of TB cases, the locations frequented by cases, and their association with risk factors associated with TB transmission. ^ This study reports, for the first time, the incidence of TB among the homeless in Houston, Texas. The homeless are an at-risk population for TB disease, yet they are also a population whose TB incidence has been unknown and unreported due to their non-enumeration. The first section of this dissertation identifies local areas in Houston with endemic TB disease. Many Houston TB cases who reported living in these endemic areas also share the TB risk factor of current or recent homelessness. Merging the 2004–2005 Houston enumeration of the homeless with historical HTI surveillance data of TB cases in Houston enabled this first-time report of TB risk among the homeless in Houston. The homeless were more likely to be US-born, belong to a genotypic cluster, and belong to a cluster of a larger size. The calculated average incidence among homeless persons was 411/100,000, compared to 9.5/100,000 among housed. These alarming rates are not driven by a co-infection but by social determinants. The unsheltered persons were hospitalized more days and required more follow-up time by staff than those who reported a steady housing situation. The homeless are a specific example of the increased targeting of prevention dollars that could occur if TB rates were reported for specific areas with known health disparities rather than as a generalized rate normalized over a diverse population. ^ It has been estimated that 27% of Houstonians use public transportation. The city layout allows bus routes to run like veins connecting even the most diverse of populations within the metropolitan area. Secondary data analysis of frequent bus use (defined as riding a route weekly) among TB cases was assessed for its relationship with known TB risk factors. The spatial distribution of genotypic clusters associated with bus use was assessed, along with the reported routes and epidemiologic-links among cases belonging to the identified clusters. ^ TB cases who reported frequent bus use were more likely to have demographic and social risk factors associated with poverty, immune suppression and health disparities. An equal proportion of bus riders and non-bus riders were cultured for Mycobacterium tuberculosis, yet 75% of bus riders were genotypically clustered, indicating recent transmission, compared to 56% of non-bus riders (OR=2.4, 95%CI(2.0, 2.8), p<0.001). Bus riders had a mean cluster size of 50.14 vs. 28.9 (p<0.001). Second order spatial analysis of clustered fingerprint 2 (n=122), a Beijing family cluster, revealed geographic clustering among cases based on their report of bus use. Univariate and multivariate analysis of routes reported by cases belonging to these clusters found that 10 of the 14 clusters were associated with use. Individual Metro routes, including one route servicing the local hospitals, were found to be risk factors for belonging to a cluster shown to be endemic in Houston. The routes themselves geographically connect the census tracts previously identified as having endemic TB. 78% (15/23) of Houston Metro routes investigated had one or more print groups reporting frequent use for every HTI study year. We present data on three specific but clonally related print groups and show that bus-use is clustered in time by route and is the only known link between cases in one of the three prints: print 22. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)^

Evaluation of elevator shafts as a pathway for fungal spores and particles to enter a hospital housing immuno-compromised patients

Background. It is estimated that hospitals spend between 28 and 33 billion dollars per year as a result of hospital-acquired infections. (Scott, 2009) The costs continue to rise despite the guidance and controls provided by hospital infection control staff to reduce patient exposures to fungal spores and other infectious agents. With all processes and controls in place, the vented elevator shaft represents an unprotected opening from the top of the building to the lower floors. The hypothesis for this prospective study is that there is a positive correlation between the number of Penicillium/Aspergillus-like spores, Cladosporium, ascospores, basidiospores in spores/m3 as individual spore categories found in the hoistway vent of an elevator shaft and the levels of the same spores, sampled near-simultaneously in the outdoor intake of the elevator shaft. Specific aims of this study include determining if external Penicillium/Aspergillus-like spores are entering the healthcare facility via the elevator shaft and hoistway vents. Additional aims include determining levels of Penicillium/Aspergillus-like spores outdoors, in the elevator shafts, and indoors in areas possibly affected by elevator shaft air; and, finally, to evaluate whether any effect is observed due to the installation of a hoistway vent damper, installed serendipitously during this study. ^ Methods. Between April 2010 and September 2010, a total of 3,521 air samples were collected, including 363 spore trap samples analyzed microscopically for seven spore types, and polymerase chain reaction analyses on 254 air samples. 2178 particle count measurements, 363 temperature readings and 363 relative humidity readings were also obtained from 7 different locations potentially related to the path of air travel inside and near a centrally-located and representative elevator shaft. ^ Results. Mean Penicillium/Aspergillus-like spore values were higher outside the building (530 spores/m3 of air) than inside the hoistway (22.8 spores/m3) during the six month study. Mean values inside the hospital were lower than outside throughout the study, ranging from 15 to 73 spores/m3 of air. Mean Penicillium/Aspergillus-like spore counts inside the hoistway decreased from 40.1 spores/m3 of air to 9 spores/m3 of air following the installation of a back draft damper between the outside air and the elevator shaft. Comparison of samples collected outside the building and inside the hoistway vent prior to installing the damper indicated a strong positive correlation (Spearman's Rho=0.8008, p=0.0001). The similar comparison following the damper installation indicated a moderate non-significant inverse correlation (Spearman's rho = −0.2795, p=0.1347). ^ Conclusion. Elevator shafts are one pathway for mold spores to enter a healthcare facility. A significant correlation was detected between spores and particle counts inside the hoistway and outside prior to changes in the ventilation system. The insertion of the back draft damper appeared to lower the spore counts inside the hoistway and inside the building. The mold spore counts in air outside the study building were higher in the period following the damper installation while the levels inside the hoistway and hospital decreased. Cladosporium and Penicillium/Aspergillus -like spores provided a method for evaluating indoor air quality as a natural tracer from outside the building to inside the building. Ascospores and basidiospores were not a valuable tracer due to low levels of detection during this study. ^ Installation of a back draft damper provides additional protection for the indoor environment of a hospital or healthcare facility, including in particular patients who may be immunocompromised. Current design standards and references do not require the installation of a back draft damper, but evaluation of adding language to relevant building codes should be considered. The data indicate a reduction in levels of Penicillium/Aspergillus -like spores, particle counts and a reduction in relative humidity inside of the elevator shaft after damper installation.^