Strengthening Families: Parents' Voices on Discipline and Child Rearing

This qualitative study conducted semi-structured, multi-session focus groups and interviews with twenty-seven participants to explore in-depth, participant constructs of child discipline and punishment methods and reasons for the continuing support for corporal punishment of U.S. children. The research assumed that parents want to parent well and utilized the strengths perspective as the instrument to listen to participants' voices. Narratives revealed that participants were thoughtful about discipline and parenting strategies and viewed their parent role as a serious commitment. Non-violent discipline strategies, particularly communication, were often used. However, parents generally framed use of physical punishment as “when children need spanking” versus articulating the view that corporal punishment is a choice. Parents were unfamiliar with risks associated with physical punishment and only three parents, as a result of their foster parent training, had ever heard, “Do not spank.” Participants enumerated services and recommendations that would support and inform their own parenting, as well as, benefit children and the eighty percent of women and men in the United States who become mothers and fathers. Recommendations included: creation of a national campaign to build on parent strengths and the intentionality of effective parenting; child development education and increased public awareness of positive discipline methods; parenting supports, including respite and venues for dialogue and discourse about parenting. Recommendations are intended to inform child welfare practice and policy, particularly child abuse prevention. Creating, funding, and implementing a national campaign as described would challenge the dominant child welfare paradigm from one currently perceived as punitive and focused on parents' deficits to a strengths-based paradigm that provides supports and assistance to parents and children.

Family Stability and Childhood Behavioral Outcomes: A Critical Review of the Literature

As the definition of what is considered a family changes in our society, the family unit itself continues to undergo changes. These changes can sometimes lead to decreased stability within the family unit. One of the greatest challenges facing those researching this phenomenon is the lack of consistency within the existing body of research surrounding what familial instability actually is (the definition). This critical review of the literature examines the current body of literature in order to identify what is known about family stability and its impact on adolescent behavior, as well as what gaps currently exist. This review focuses on definitions of family stability, current factors surrounding the stability of the family unit, and addresses the implications that the current body of literature presents.

Behavioral Outcomes of Home-Based Services for Children and Adolescents with Serious Emotional Disorders

The current study evaluates the effectiveness of an intensive home-based treatment program, Families First, on the behaviors of children and adolescents suffering from mental disorders and being at risk for out-ofi home placement. The sample included 85 youngsters and their families from a semi-rural community. The Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents-Revised (DICA-R) was administered to the children, and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) was completed by a parent at pretreatment and posttreatment. The families participated in a 4-6 week, intensive home intervention where crisis intervention, social support services, and needed psychological services were offered. The results indicated that both externalizing and internalizing behavior problems in youngsters with different diagnoses of mental disorders were significantly reduced at posttreatment as indicated by their CBCL scores. Furthermore, youngsters with a diagnosis of Oppositional Defiant Disorder seemed to benefit the most, as evidenced by the improved scores on most subscales of the CBCL. Youngsters with mood disorders and conduct disorders seemed to benefit in their most deficient areas, internalizing behavior problems and delinquent behaviors, respectively. Finally, after participating in Families First, more than half of the youngsters in the sample were able to stay home with their families

Modulatory effects of bag cell peptides in {\it Aplysia}: Behavioral and electrophysiological studies

Reproductive hormones have effects on the nervous system not directly related to reproductive function. In the rat, for example, luteinizing hormone releasing hormone has dramatic effects on learning and memory. The present work attempts to examine the effects of reproductive hormones on non-reproductive behaviors and the neural loci and mechanisms underlying these effects in Aplysia, an animal whose behaviors, reproductive hormones and neural circuitry have been well characterized.^ In Aplysia, the neurosecretory bag cells release several peptides that are responsible for eliciting egg laying. The effects of these peptides on the defensive tail-siphon withdrawal reflex, as well as sensitization of this reflex, were examined. Sensitization, a simple form of nonassociative learning, refers to the behavioral enhancement of a response to a test stimulus after the presentation of a strong stimulus, that may last minutes (short-term) or days (long-term). An extract of the bag cells (BCE) inhibited the baseline siphon component of the tail-siphon withdrawal reflex and suppressed long-term, but not short-term, sensitization of the reflex. Preliminary experiments suggest that BCE also affects the tail component of the tail-siphon withdrawal reflex.^ To determine the neural mechanisms underlying the inhibition of the baseline reflex, electrophysiological studies were performed using an in vitro analogue of the tail-siphon withdrawal reflex to examine the ability of BCE, as well as the individual bag cell peptides (BCPs), to modulate the circuitry of the reflex. Bag cell extract attenuated the synaptic strength of the monosynaptic connections between tail sensory neurons and tail motor neurons. When individually applied only $\beta$-BCP produced a similar attenuation. This effect of $\beta$-BCP was not dependent on changes in duration of the presynaptic action potential.^ An in vitro analogue of long-term sensitization training was developed to examine the mechanisms by which the BCPs may affect long-term sensitization of the tail-siphon withdrawal reflex. This analogue exhibited both short- and long-term facilitation of the connections between the tail sensory and motor neurons.^ The results of these behavioral and electrophysiological experiments suggest that the BCPs inhibit the tail-siphon withdrawal reflex, at least in part, by modulating the synaptic strength of the connections between the sensory neurons and motor neurons underlying the reflex. One candidate for this effect is $\beta$-BCP. Thus, the peptides which elicit egg laying may also serve other functions such as the inhibition of defensive reflexes. In addition, these experiments raise the possibility that BCPs may exert a long lasting effect ($>$24 hr), suppressing long-term sensitization of the tail-siphon withdrawal reflex. ^

Skills training and social influences for violence prevention in middle schools: A curriculum evaluation

This pilot study evaluated the effect of skills training and of social influences on self-reported aggressive behavior in a sample of 239 sixth-grade students. The effect of two intervention groups and one control group were compared. In the first intervention group, a 15-session, violence-prevention curriculum was taught by the teacher. In the second intervention group, the same curriculum was taught by the teacher with the assistance of peer leaders trained to modify social norms about violence. The control group was evaluated but did not receive any training. The design included four schools. In two schools, three classes were assigned to one of the two interventions or to the control group. In the other two schools, two classes were assigned to either intervention (teacher only) or control. Students were evaluated before and after the implementation of the curriculum using a standardized questionnaire.^ The primary outcome was the effect of the curriculum and peer leaders on self-reported aggressive behaviors. The secondary outcome was their impact on intervening variables: knowledge about violence, conflict-resolution skills, self-efficacy, and attitudes.^ The intervention had a moderate effect on reducing self-reported aggressive behaviors among boys in two of the six classes that received the curriculum. Both classes with peer leaders reduced their aggressive behavior, but this reduction was significant in only one. A peer leader selection problem could probably explain this lack of effect.^ In three of the four schools, both interventions had an overall significant effect on increasing knowledge about violence and skills to reduce violence. Students also developed a more negative attitude toward violence after the intervention. As hypothesized, attitude change was stronger among students from the teacher plus peer leader group. No intervention effect was observed on self-efficacy nor on attitudes toward skills to reduce violence. Limitations of the study and implications for violence prevention in schools are discussed. ^

Behavioral and cellular analysis of classical conditioning of feeding behavior in Aplysia

In classical conditioning, an associative form of learning, animals learn to associate two stimuli. Cellular and molecular mechanisms for the induction and consolidation of associative learning and memory at the level of single cells and synaptic connections have been studied in both vertebrate and invertebrate animals. The majority of studies, however, relied on aversive stimuli to induce learning. This bias may limit the extent to which identified mechanisms generalize to other forms of associative learning and memory, such as appetitive forms. The goal of the present study was to develop a classical conditioning procedure for the marine mollusk Aplysia californica using appetitive reinforcement, and to analyze associative learning using behavioral and electrophysiological techniques. ^ Using tactile stimulation of the lips as the conditional stimulus (CS) and food as the unconditional stimulus (US) a training protocol was developed that reliably induced classical conditioning of feeding behavior. Memory persisted for at least 24 hours. The gross organization of reinforcement-mediating pathways was analyzed in additional behavioral experiments. Moreover, neurophysiological correlates of classical conditioning were identified and characterized in an in vitro preparation containing the circuitry for feeding behavior. In vitro stimulation of a nerve (AT4) that may mediate the CS during training, resulted in a greater number of buccal motor patterns (BMPs) in brains from conditioned animals, as compared to control animals. The majority of these BMPs were ingestion-like, consistent with the increased number of bites in response to the CS after classical conditioning. Moreover, classical conditioning correlated with increased excitatory synaptic input to BMP-initiating neuron B31/32, in response to stimulation of AT 4, as compared to controls. The expression of the correlates of classical conditioning identified in this study was specific to stimulation of AT 4, which is consistent the stimulus specificity that is characteristic for classical conditioning. ^ The identification of cellular correlates of classical conditioning documented here provides the basis for future, more detailed analyses of an appetitive form of associative learning and memory, that may extend the working knowledge of the cellular and molecular mechanisms for associative plasticity in general. ^

Behavioral risk profile of marathon runners

Although long distance running clearly has benefits--as witnessed by its popularity--it also has risks of injury and death. Little is known, however, about the prevalence of potentially dangerous training habits in long distance runners, although anecdotal information suggests that many runners have erroneous beliefs about risks and benefits of marathon running. We conducted a cross-sectional survey to estimate the prevalence of 19 potentially dangerous training habits (risky behaviors) among marathon runners. A 66-item self-administered questionnaire was mailed to a stratified random sample of runners who finished of the 1992 Houston-Tenneco Marathon and were 21-71 years of age. Responses were obtained from 508 runners (83%) with approximately equal representation in four age-gender groups: men $<$40 years, men $\ge$40 years, women $<$40 years, and women $\ge$40 years.^ Prevalences of risky behaviors were high. 50% or more ran in dangerously hot and humid conditions, did not cool down or stretch after running, did not wear proper running gear, or ran when injured or ill; 25-49% did not warm up, ran on dangerous surfaces, did not drink sufficient water during training, increased weekly mileage too quickly, and ran during lightning storms; 10-24% ran daily, ran in areas with high pollution, ran in the same direction as traffic, did hard runs frequently, ran more than 60 miles per week, or ran against the advice of a physician.^ Positive associations were found between the practice of risky behaviors and self-reported prevalence of musculoskeletal injuries, heat-related injuries, noncompliance with recommendations for preventive health examinations, and noncompliance with positive health habits.^ These results indicate that many marathon runners engage in training habits that may increase risk of substantial injury or illness. Further studies are needed to explore the association of risky training behaviors on the incidence of injuries, and to determine reasons for noncompliance with recommendations from sports medicine specialists. ^

Shaping Attitudes in Public Child Welfare: An Innovative MSW Training Program

Children investigated by child welfare are at significant risk for poor cognitive, emotional, social, behavioral and economic outcomes. In 2000, California formed the Child Welfare Services Group to propose changes in how child welfare services are delivered, the CWS Redesign. California State University, Long Beach’s child welfare training program developed its complement. Fundamentally, Redesign calls for partnering with families and communities to strengthen families, prevent unnecessary placements or re-unite families successfully. These changes are a paradigm shift in attitudes toward birth families and communities. In a qualitative study, interns logged their observations and subsequent impressions of CWS-Client encounters to explore how attitudes are learned. Majority of interns observed positive, collaborative encounters and perceived birth parents as motivated. Their impressions support introducing interns to birth families on the front-end of CWS training.