HIV disclosure decisions and social support among African-American women in Houston, Texas

African Americans make up 12.3% of the population but account for over half of the new HIV cases and 39% of the AIDS cases in 2003 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2003). African American women in particular accounted for 64% of these cases of HIV and 60% of the AIDS cases (Leigh & Huff, 2003). This study contributed to the knowledge about the disclosure process of women living with HIV/AIDS by documenting the relationship between social support and the disclosure process in the African American HIV/AIDS population.^ The study aims were to: (1) discuss the participants' self concept of support; (2) describe the common characteristics of the disclosure process; and (3) evaluate the common characteristics of support sought in a potential disclosure source. The ethnographic qualitative methodology was utilized to elicit participant narratives of HIV disclosure and social support. The researcher utilized a key informant interview methodology building on existing social and organizational relationships (Krueger, 1994) to gain access to the population. ^ Semi-structured interviews are a widely used and accepted qualitative research method for use with hard to reach populations and sensitive topics. Ten participants completed a 45 to 60 minute, one on one semi-structured interview covering social support and disclosure variables. Inclusion and exclusion criteria included: (1) self identified as a person living with HIV/AIDS; (2) African American); (3) female; (4) age 18-64 years old, (5) residence in Houston or surrounding counties.^ Themes generated from the interviews were (1) nondisclosure, (2) experiences with disclosure, (3) timing, (4) disclosure sources, and (5) coping. The themes suggest African American women living with HIV/AIDS come from different lifestyles but share similar experiences. Women utilize different strategies such as deciphering whom to trust and determining how much information to divulge in order to protect themselves or others.^ Although the sample group was small for this study, the results inform us about the various experiences each woman goes through as it relates to social support and disclosure and that each woman has to customize her response to the type of support she is receiving and her personal attitude about her disease.^

Knowledge, beliefs, risk behaviors, and social skills for HIV/STD prevention in junior college students (grades 11--12) in Bombay, India

1230 year 11 and 12 college students, modal age 16 and 17, in three colleges in Bombay, India, were studied on sexual behaviors or risk of sexual behaviors, beliefs about sex, HIV/STD knowledge, perceived norms regarding sexual behaviors, and the relationships between social skills/anxieties in HIV/STD prevention and actual and anticipated sexual behaviors. A quantitative questionnaire examining HIV/STD risk behaviors, knowledge, attitudes and beliefs, and the AIDS Social Assertiveness Scale (ASAS) were administered to these 1230 college students. Data indicated that 8% of males and 1% of females had had sexual experience, but over one third were not sure at all of being able to abstain from sexual activity with either steady or casual partners. Perceived norms were slanted toward sexual abstinence for the majority of the sample. Knowledge of protective effects of condoms was high, although half of those who had had sex did not use condoms. Logistic regression showed knowledge was higher among males, those who believed it was OK to have sex with a steady partner and that they should not wait until they were older, those who believed that condoms should be used even if the partner is known, and those who believed it was acceptable to have multiple partners. Gender differences in sexual activity and beliefs about sexual activity showed males were less likely to believe in abstaining from sexual activity. The 5 scales of the ASAS were scored and compared on ANOVA on: those who had had sexual experience (HS), those who anticipated being unable to refuse sex (AS), and those who did not anticipate problems in refusing sex (DS). Those in the AS group had greater anxieties about refusing sexual or other risk behaviors than HS and DS groups. There were greater anxieties about dealing with condoms in the AS and DS groups compared with the HS group. Confiding sexual or HIV/STD-related problems to significant others was more anxiety-provoking for the AS group compared with the HS group, and the AS group were more anxious about interactions with people with HIV. Factor analysis produced the same 5 factors as those found in previous studies. Of these, condom interactions and confiding in significant others were most anxiety provoking, and condom interactions most variable based on demographic and attitudinal factors.^ This age group is appropriate for HIV/STD reduction education given the low rate of sexual activity but despite knowledge of the importance of condom use, social skills to apply this knowledge are lacking. Social skills training in sexual negotiations, condom negotiations, and confiding HIV/STD-related concerns to significant others should reduce the risks of Indian college students having unwanted or unprotected sex. ^

Adolescent tobacco use: Studies of prevalence, factorial validity, and factorial invariance between African Americans and Whites

In the last thirty years, increasing efforts have been made to reduce the prevalence of adolescent tobacco use in the United States. Although the prevalence has declined dramatically over the past decade, there are still sharp differences in adolescent smoking-initiation rates across racial/ethnic groups. Large-scale surveys frequently assess smoking-related attitudes, self-efficacy, and intentions to explain the differences in smoking rates between African Americans and Whites. However, there is little agreement about which constructs are significant. Moreover, the psychometric properties of smoking-related attitude, self-efficacy, and intention constructs have not been fully examined. More studies are needed to understand existing patterns of tobacco use and to validate and fully exploit the constructs' relationship to adolescent smoking initiation across racial/ethnic groups. ^ This dissertation reports on a secondary analysis of data from a large multi-ethnic convenience sample of sixth- through eighth-grade students in 22 schools in East Texas and the city of Houston. The specific aims of this dissertation were to (1) describe smoking and alternate tobacco product use rates by race/ethnicity, gender, age, and grade level (Article 1); (2) test the factorial validity of smoking-related attitudes, self-efficacy, and intentions using confirmatory factor analysis techniques (Article 2); and (3) test the factorial invariance of smoking-related attitudes, self-efficacy, and intentions between African Americans and Whites (Article 3). ^ The prevalence findings confirm the disparities in tobacco use among African American, Hispanic, and White adolescents that other surveys have reported (Article 1). This study also demonstrates the usefulness of examining use patterns of not only cigarettes but also alternative tobacco products in younger multiethnic populations, as well as of providing epidemiological data estimates about different phases of smoking. The confirmatory factor analysis provides evidence of construct validity of attitude, self-efficacy, and intention scales for the multiethnic sample (Article 2). Finally, the factorial invariance analyses indicates that some measures representing smoking-related attitudes, self-efficacy, and intentions may not be appropriate for use among both African Americans and Whites (Article 3). Additional research is needed to further our understanding of the patterns and predictors of youth tobacco use initiation. ^

Fruit and vegetable dietary patterns and weight loss in Mexican-American women

Although dietary patterns and their association with health outcomes is not a new topic, they have not been widely studied in Mexican-American populations. There are no studies of fruit and vegetable dietary patterns related to weight loss in Mexican-American women. This study aims to examine whether a change in proportion of fruit and vegetable consumption results in a change in weight. A secondary data analysis of 208 overweight or obese Mexican-American women from the Unidos en Salud weight loss intervention study was performed to investigate this relationship. Through regression analysis, the change in weight for every unit change in proportion of fruits and vegetables was tested with appropriate adjustment for age. The results showed a significant inverse association between fruit and vegetable intake densities and weight change. These results support previous studies and provide a possible effective and efficient method to reduce body mass index (BMI) among overweight or obese Mexican-American women. ^

Demographic and social factors which influence periodontal disease using the National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey (NHANES)

Periodontal diseases include the various forms of gingivitis and periodontitis. Scientific literature submits 80% of the population suffers from some form of periodontal disease. The comparison of studies measuring periodontal disease is difficult because researchers use various parameters and indexes to define disease severity. The purposes of this paper were to examine the associations of gingival bleeding and 3 or more millimeters periodontal attachment loss, and age, sex, income, race/ethnicity, current tobacco use, dental visits, health insurance, stroke, heart attack, and diabetes using the periodontal examination population from the National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999-2004. ^ When all risk factors were analyzed in the model as a whole sex, race/ethnicity, poverty, and education were statistically significant for bleeding on probing. When all risk factors were analyzed in the model as a whole sex, age, and education were statistically significant for loss of attachment. ^

Impact of consciousness raising and social liberation on readiness to engage in regular physical activity among adults in Magnolia Park/Lawndale-Wayside, Houston, TX

According to the transtheoretical model, consciousness raising and social liberation are processes used to help individuals progress through the stages of change for a given behavior. This study assessed the impact of these two processes on readiness to engage in regular physical activity among a convenience sample of 35 adults in the Magnolia Park/Lawndale-Wayside area of Houston, TX. The duration of the study was approximately 4 weeks. All pre/post-test data were collected via self-administered surveys available in English or Spanish. Baseline data were used to determine the culturally relevant content of a one-dose intervention consisting of a presentation and dissemination of educational materials as well as a list of local physical activity opportunities. Although the intervention did not improve progression through the stages of change, significant increases were evident among 5 out of 6 processes of change. Based on these results and qualitative data, this study recommended that the Houston Parks and Recreation Department incorporate cultural competency into the design and publication of materials and revise the schedule of available programs (i.e.: increase the number of walking programs) in order to reflect the physical activity preferences of Magnolia Park/Lawndale-Wayside residents.^

Skills training and social influences for violence prevention in middle schools: A curriculum evaluation

This pilot study evaluated the effect of skills training and of social influences on self-reported aggressive behavior in a sample of 239 sixth-grade students. The effect of two intervention groups and one control group were compared. In the first intervention group, a 15-session, violence-prevention curriculum was taught by the teacher. In the second intervention group, the same curriculum was taught by the teacher with the assistance of peer leaders trained to modify social norms about violence. The control group was evaluated but did not receive any training. The design included four schools. In two schools, three classes were assigned to one of the two interventions or to the control group. In the other two schools, two classes were assigned to either intervention (teacher only) or control. Students were evaluated before and after the implementation of the curriculum using a standardized questionnaire.^ The primary outcome was the effect of the curriculum and peer leaders on self-reported aggressive behaviors. The secondary outcome was their impact on intervening variables: knowledge about violence, conflict-resolution skills, self-efficacy, and attitudes.^ The intervention had a moderate effect on reducing self-reported aggressive behaviors among boys in two of the six classes that received the curriculum. Both classes with peer leaders reduced their aggressive behavior, but this reduction was significant in only one. A peer leader selection problem could probably explain this lack of effect.^ In three of the four schools, both interventions had an overall significant effect on increasing knowledge about violence and skills to reduce violence. Students also developed a more negative attitude toward violence after the intervention. As hypothesized, attitude change was stronger among students from the teacher plus peer leader group. No intervention effect was observed on self-efficacy nor on attitudes toward skills to reduce violence. Limitations of the study and implications for violence prevention in schools are discussed. ^

Knowledge of exercise recommendations and energy intake from foods and beverages in relation to exercise behaviors within two Hispanic border communities

This research is a secondary analysis of the Qué Sabrosa Vida population-based cross-sectional study of two predominately Mexican American communities located along the Texas-Mexico border in 2000. There were two aims for this research. The first was to determine the relationship between knowledge of exercise and water recommendations, and exercise behavior and water consumption. The second was to determine the relationship between exercise behavior and percentage of energy consumption from beverages. Chi-square analysis revealed the majority of both populations had adequate knowledge about water and exercise recommendations, although significant percentages of the populations (>40%) did not consume water or exercise in adequate amounts. Knowledge was found to be a component of both behaviors, as it was more prevalent in the adults who exercised and consumed water in adequate amounts. Analysis of variance revealed no significant difference between overall beverage calorie percentage and exercise level (all p-values > 0.05); both regions and genders reported ∼18% of total caloric intake from beverages. There was no disproportionate influence of beverage calories on total caloric intake, after controlling for water consumption and independent of exercise behavior. These findings suggest that overall caloric intake, from both foods and beverages, may be the most influential factor to the energy imbalance contributing to the obesity crisis in these Hispanic border populations. ^

Identifying characteristics of mentally ill homeless individuals who are successfully linked to health and social services post-incarceration via the jail inreach project

Healthcare for the Homeless—Houston (HHH) received a research grant from The Medallion Foundation, Inc. in March 2006 to pilot The Jail Inreach Project, an intensive “inreach” initiative to assess the impact of providing continuity of mental and primary health care services for homeless individuals who suffer from mental illness and/or substance abuse being released from jail. This pilot project was initiated by HHH, in collaboration with the Harris County Sheriff’s Office and the Mental Health Mental Retardation Authority of Harris County (MHMRA). Those who are flagged as “frequent flyers” and who are diagnosed with a mental illness are referred to the Jail Inreach Project. In order to maximize the effectiveness of the discharge plan, case managers offer the option of meeting the client at the time of release and bring them to the HHH clinic located four blocks from the jail. Participation in both the program and the option for direct release to the care of a case manager are voluntary.^ The purpose of this study is to determine the outcomes of the Jail Inreach Project and addresses the following objectives: (1) to evaluate the characteristics of inmates that chose to be released from jail to the direct care of an HHH case manager versus those who opt for self release and (2) to determine the number and percent of inmates that are linked to services and relationship with type of release (direct versus indirect), (3) to determine if there is a relationship between outcomes and characteristics and (4) to determine what outcomes are a function of release, controlling for characteristics. Statistical analysis, including frequencies, cross tabulations, chi-square and logistical regression, found that those who opt for self release are six times less likely to be successfully linked to services and that gender is the most significant predictor of choosing self release. Men are far more likely to opt for self release than women engaged in this program. These findings help inform policy and program design and development that addresses the difference in service utilization and successful linkage to services post-incarceration. Successful linkage to services, thus continuity of and access to care, further impact the effects of the revolving door phenomenon of mentally ill homeless individuals cycling between the streets, jails and hospital emergency centers.^

A systematic review of the methods used to assess race and racial disparities in uterine fibroid research

Context: Black women are reported to have a higher prevalence of uterine fibroids, and a threefold higher incidence rate and relative risk for clinical uterine fibroid development as compared to women of other races. Uterine fibroid research has reported that black women experience greater uterine fibroid morbidity and disproportionate uterine fibroid disease burden. With increased interest in understanding uterine fibroid development, and race being a critical component of uterine fibroid assessment, it is imperative that the methods used to determine the race of research participants is defined and the operational definition of the use of race as a variable is reported for methodological guidance, and to enable the research community to compare statistical data and replicate studies. ^ Objectives: To systematically review and evaluate the methods used to assess race and racial disparities in uterine fibroid research. ^ Data Sources: Databases searched for this review include: OVID Medline, NML PubMed, Ebscohost Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Plus with Full Text, and Elsevier Scopus. ^ Review Methods: Articles published in English were retrieved from data sources between January 2011 and March 2011. Broad search terms, uterine fibroids and race, were employed to retrieve a comprehensive list of citations for review screening. The initial database yield included 947 articles, after duplicate extraction 485 articles remained. In addition, 771 bibliographic citations were reviewed to identify additional articles not found through the primary database search, of which 17 new articles were included. In the first screening, 502 titles and abstracts were screened against eligibility questions to determine citations of exclusion and to retrieve full text articles for review. In the second screening, 197 full texted articles were screened against eligibility questions to determine whether or not they met full inclusion/exclusion criteria. ^ Results: 100 articles met inclusion criteria and were used in the results of this systematic review. The evidence suggested that black women have a higher prevalence of uterine fibroids when compared to white women. None of the 14 studies reporting data on prevalence reported an operational definition or conceptual framework for the use of race. There were a limited number of studies reporting on the prevalence of risk factors among racial subgroups. Of the 3 studies, 2 studies reported prevalence of risk factors lower for black women than other races, which was contrary to hypothesis. And, of the three studies reporting on prevalence of risk factors among racial subgroups, none of them reported a conceptual framework for the use of race. ^ Conclusion: In the 100 uterine fibroid studies included in this review over half, 66%, reported a specific objective to assess and recruit study participants based upon their race and/or ethnicity, but most, 51%, failed to report a method of determining the actual race of the participants, and far fewer, 4% (only four South American studies), reported a conceptual framework and/or operational definition of race as a variable. However, most, 95%, of all studies reported race-based health outcomes. The inadequate methodological guidance on the use of race in uterine fibroid studies, purporting to assess race and racial disparities, may be a primary reason that uterine fibroid research continues to report racial disparities, but fails to understand the high prevalence and increased exposures among African-American women. A standardized method of assessing race throughout uterine fibroid research would appear to be helpful in elucidating what race is actually measuring, and the risk of exposures for that measurement. ^

Sociocultural context of knowledge and beliefs about cardiovascular disease among Latino women

We formed an academic-community partnership with the Salsa Caliente program to undertake a project to better understand how Latina women with cardiovascular disease (CVD) or at risk of CVD view and understand CVD. This study's research question examines the sociocultural factors that influence and inform Latino women's perceptions and beliefs about CVD. Seven out the eleven participants in the Salsa Caliente program consented to be interviewed. The data was collected through recorded interviews, which were transcribed and then analyzed for common themes found among all the participants' narratives. The content analysis looking into common themes yielded four: 1) increased awareness of CVD, 2) trust in doctor, 3) delay in doctor visits, and 4) awareness of health. Implications for interventions and further research are discussed.^