Capacity optimization of a prestressed concrete railroad tie

Today the use of concrete ties is on the rise in North America as they become an economically competitive alternative to the historical industry standard wood ties, while providing performance which exceeds its competition in terms of durability and capacity. Similarly, in response to rising energy costs, there is increased demand for efficient and sustainable transportation of people and goods. One source of such transportation is the railroad. To accommodate the increased demand, railroads are constructing new track and upgrading existing track. This update to the track system will increase its capacity while making it a more reliable means of transportation compared to other alternatives. In addition to increasing the track system capacity, railroads are considering an increase in the size of the typical freight rail car to allow larger tonnage. An increase in rail car loads will in turn affect the performance requirements of the track. Due to the increased loads heavy haul railroads are considering applying to their tracks, current designs of prestressed concrete railroad ties for heavy haul applications may be undersized. In an effort to maximize tie capacity while maintaining tie geometry, fastening systems and installation equipment, a parametric study to optimize the existing designs was completed. The optimization focused on maximizing the capacity of an existing tie design through an investigation of prestressing quantity, configuration, stress levels and other material properties. The results of the parametric optimization indicate that the capacity of an existing tie can be increased most efficiently by increasing the diameter of the prestressing and concrete strength. However, researchers also found that current design specifications and procedures do not include consideration of tie behavior beyond the current tie capacity limit of cracking to the first layer of prestressing. In addition to limiting analysis to the cracking limit, failure mechanisms such as shear in deep beams at the rail seat or pullout failure of the prestressing due to lack of development length were absent from specified design procedures, but discussed in this project.

Structural capacity of steel tubular cast-in-place piling

Steel tubular cast-in-place pilings are used throughout the country for many different project types. These piles are a closed-end pipe with varying wall thicknesses and outer diameters, that are driven to depth and then the core is filled with concrete. These piles are typically used for smaller bridges, or secondary structures. Mostly the piling is designed based on a resistance based method which is a function of the soil properties of which the pile is driven through, however there is a structural capacity of these members that is considered to be the upper bound on the loading of the member. This structural capacity is given by the AASHTO LRFD (2010), with two methods. These two methods are based on a composite or non-composite section. Many state agencies and corporations use the non-composite equation because it is requires much less computation and is known to be conservative. However with the trends of the time, more and more structural elements are being investigated to determine ways to better understand the mechanics of the members, which could lead to more efficient and safer designs. In this project, a set of these piling are investigated. The way the cross section reacts to several different loading conditions, along with a more detailed observation of the material properties is considered as part of this research. The evaluation consisted of testing stub sections of pile with varying sizes (10-¾”, 12-¾”), wall thicknesses (0.375”, 0.5”), and testing methods (whole compression, composite compression, push through, core sampling). These stub sections were chosen as they would represent a similar bracing length to many different soils. In addition, a finite element model was developed using ANSYS to predict the strains from the testing of the pile cross sections. This model was able to simulate the strains from most of the loading conditions and sizes that were tested. The bond between the steel shell and the concrete core, along with the concrete strength through the depth of the cross section were some of the material properties of these sections that were investigated.

MATURE FINE TAILINGS (MFTs): A STUDY OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF ATHABASCA OIL SANDS PETROLEUM MINING WASTE APPLIED IN CONCRETE MIXTURES

This study investigates the compressive properties of concrete incorporating Mature Fine Tailings (MFTs) waste stream from a tar sands mining operation. The objectives of this study are to investigate material properties of the MFT material itself, as well as establish general feasibility of the utilization of MFT material in concrete mixtures through empirical data and visual observations. Investigations undertaken in this study consist of moisture content, materials finer than No. 200 sieve, Atterburg Limits as well as visual observations performed on MFT material as obtained. Control concrete mixtures as well as MFT replacement mixture designs (% by wt. of water) were guided by properties of the MFT material that were experimentally established. The experimental design consists of compression testing of 4”-diameter concrete cylinders of a control mixture, 30% MFT, 50% MFT and 70% MFT replacement mixtures with air-entrainer additive, as well as a control mixture and 30% MFT replacement mixture with no air-entrainer. A total of 6 mixtures (2 control mixtures, 4 replacement mixtures) moist-cured in lime water after 24 hours initial curing were tested for ultimate compressive strength at 7 days and 28 days in accordance to ASTM C39. The test results of fresh concrete material show that the addition of air-entrainer to the control mixture increases slump from 4” to 5.5”. However, the use of MFT material in concrete mixtures significantly decreases slump as compared to controls. All MFT replacement mixtures (30%, 50%, and 70%) with air-entrainer present slumps of 1”. 30% MFT with no air-entrainer presents a slump of 1.5”. It was found that 7-day ultimate compressive stress was not a good predictor of 28-day ultimate compressive stress. 28-day results indicate that the use of MFT material in concrete with air-entrainer decreases ultimate compressive stress for 30%, 50% and 70% MFT replacement amounts by 14.2%, 17.3% and 25.1% respectively.

Compatibility of ultra high performance concrete as repair material : bond characterization with concrete under different loading scenarios

The rehabilitation of concrete structures, especially concrete bridge decks, is a major challenge for transportation agencies in the United States. Often, the most appropriate strategy to preserve or rehabilitate these structures is to provide some form of a protective coating or barrier. These surface treatments have typically been some form of polymer, asphalt, or low-permeability concrete, but the application of UHPC has shown promise for this application mainly due to its negligible permeability, but also as a result of its excellent mechanical properties, self-consolidating nature, rapid gain strength, and minimal creep and shrinkage characteristics. However, for widespread acceptance, durability and performance of the composite system must be fully understood, specifically the bond between UHPC and NSC often used in bridge decks. It is essential that the bond offers enough strength to resist the stress due to mechanical loading or thermal effects, while also maintaining an extended service-life performance. This report attempts to assess the bond strength between UHPC and NSC under different loading configurations. Different variables, such as roughness degree of the concrete substrates, age of bond, exposure to freeze-thaw cycles and wetting conditions of the concrete substrate, were included in this study. The combination of splitting tensile test with 0, 300, 600 and 900 freeze-thaw cycles was carried out to assess the bond performance under severe ambient conditions. The slant-shear test was utilized with different interface angles to provide a wide understanding of the bond performance under different combinations of compression and shear stresses. The pull-off test is the most accepted method to evaluate the bond strength in the field. This test which studies the direct tensile strength of the bond, the most severe loading condition, was used to provide data that can be correlated with the other tests that only can be used in the laboratory. The experimental program showed that the bond performance between UHPC and NSC is successful, as the strength regardless the different degree of roughness of the concrete substrate, the age of the composite specimens, the exposure to freeze-thaw cycles and the different loading configurations, is greater than that of concrete substrate and largely satisfies with ACI 546.3R-06.

Application of ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) as a thin-bonded overlay for concrete bridge decks

As transportation infrastructure across the globe approaches the end of its service life, new innovative materials and applications are needed to sustainably repair and prevent damage to these structures. Bridge structures in the United States in particular are at risk as a large percentage will be reaching their design service lives in the coming decades. Superstructure deterioration occurs due to a variety of factors, but a major contributor comes in the form of deteriorating concrete bridge decks. Within a concrete bridge deck system, deterioration mechanisms can include spalling, delaminations, scaling from unsuitable material selection, freeze-thaw damage, and corrosion of reinforcing steel due to infiltration of chloride ions and moisture. This thesis presents findings pertaining to the feasibility of using UHPC as a thin-bonded overlay on concrete bridge decks, specifically in precast bridge deck applications where construction duration and traffic interruption can be minimized, as well as in cast-in-place field applications. UHPC has several properties that make it a desirable material for this application. These properties include post-cracking tensile capacity, high compressive strength, high resistance to environmental and chemical attack, negligible permeability, negligible dry shrinkage when thermally cured, and the ability to self consolidate. The compatibility of this bridge deck overlay system was determined to minimize overlay thickness and dead load without sacrificing bond integrity or lose of protective capabilities. A parametric analysis was conducted using a 3D finite element model of a simply supported bridge under HS-20 truck and overload. Experimental tests were conducted to determine the net effect of UHPC volume change due to restrained shrinkage and tensile creep relaxation. The combined effects from numerical models and test results were then considered in determining the optimum overlay thickness for cast-in-place and precast applications.

Model to describe the mode I fracture of steel fiber reinforced ultra-high performance concrete

Ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) has arisen from the implementation of a variety of concrete engineering and materials science concepts developed over the last century. This material offers superior strength, serviceability, and durability over its conventional counterparts. One of the most important differences for UHPFRC over other concrete materials is its ability to resist fracture through the use of randomly dispersed discontinuous fibers and improvements to the fiber-matrix bond. Of particular interest is the materials ability to achieve higher loads after first crack, as well as its high fracture toughness. In this research, a study of the fracture behavior of UHPFRC with steel fibers was conducted to look at the effect of several parameters related to the fracture behavior and to develop a fracture model based on a non-linear curve fit of the data. To determine this, a series of three-point bending tests were performed on various single edge notched prisms (SENPs). Compression tests were also performed for quality assurance. Testing was conducted on specimens of different cross-sections, span/depth (S/D) ratios, curing regimes, ages, and fiber contents. By comparing the results from prisms of different sizes this study examines the weakening mechanism due to the size effect. Furthermore, by employing the concept of fracture energy it was possible to obtain a comparison of the fracture toughness and ductility. The model was determined based on a fit to P-w fracture curves, which was cross referenced for comparability to the results. Once obtained the model was then compared to the models proposed by the AFGC in the 2003 and to the ACI 544 model for conventional fiber reinforced concretes.

COMPRESSION BEHAVIOR AT HIGH STRAIN RATE FOR AN ULTRA HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE

The need for a stronger and more durable building material is becoming more important as the structural engineering field expands and challenges the behavioral limits of current materials. One of the demands for stronger material is rooted in the effects that dynamic loading has on a structure. High strain rates on the order of 101 s-1 to 103 s-1, though a small part of the overall types of loading that occur anywhere between 10-8 s-1 to 104 s-1 and at any point in a structures life, have very important effects when considering dynamic loading on a structure. High strain rates such as these can cause the material and structure to behave differently than at slower strain rates, which necessitates the need for the testing of materials under such loading to understand its behavior. Ultra high performance concrete (UHPC), a relatively new material in the U.S. construction industry, exhibits many enhanced strength and durability properties compared to the standard normal strength concrete. However, the use of this material for high strain rate applications requires an understanding of UHPC’s dynamic properties under corresponding loads. One such dynamic property is the increase in compressive strength under high strain rate load conditions, quantified as the dynamic increase factor (DIF). This factor allows a designer to relate the dynamic compressive strength back to the static compressive strength, which generally is a well-established property. Previous research establishes the relationships for the concept of DIF in design. The generally accepted methodology for obtaining high strain rates to study the enhanced behavior of compressive material strength is the split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB). In this research, 83 Cor-Tuf UHPC specimens were tested in dynamic compression using a SHPB at Michigan Technological University. The specimens were separated into two categories: ambient cured and thermally treated, with aspect ratios of 0.5:1, 1:1, and 2:1 within each category. There was statistically no significant difference in mean DIF for the aspect ratios and cure regimes that were considered in this study. DIF’s ranged from 1.85 to 2.09. Failure modes were observed to be mostly Type 2, Type 4, or combinations thereof for all specimen aspect ratios when classified according to ASTM C39 fracture pattern guidelines. The Comite Euro-International du Beton (CEB) model for DIF versus strain rate does not accurately predict the DIF for UHPC data gathered in this study. Additionally, a measurement system analysis was conducted to observe variance within the measurement system and a general linear model analysis was performed to examine the interaction and main effects that aspect ratio, cannon pressure, and cure method have on the maximum dynamic stress.

BENEFICIAL REUSE OF LOCALLY-AVAILABLE WASTE MATERIALS AS LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE IN LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

This study investigated the physical characteristics of lightweight concrete produced using waste materials as coarse aggregate. The study was inspired by the author’s Peace Corps service in Kilwa, Tanzania. Coconut shell, sisal fiber, and PET plastic were chosen as the test waste products due to their abundance in the area. Two mixes were produced for each waste product and the mix proportions designed for resulting compressive strengths of 3000 and 5000 psi. The proportions were selected based on guidelines for lightweight concrete from the American Concrete Institute. In preparation for mixing, coconut shells were crushed into aggregate no larger than 3/4 inch, sisal fiber was cut into pieces no longer than 3/8 inch, and PET plastic was shredded into 1/4 inch-wide strips no longer than 6 inches. Replicate samples were mixed and then cured for 28 days before they were tested for compressive strength, unit weight, and absorption. The resulting data were compared to ASTM Standards for lightweight concrete masonry units to determine their adequacy. Based on these results, there is potential for coconut shell to be used as coarse aggregate in lightweight concrete. Sisal fiber was unsuccessful in producing the appropriate compressive strength. However, the reduction in spalling of the hardened concrete and the induction of air in the mixes incorporating sisal fiber suggests that it has the potential to improve other characteristics of lightweight concrete. Concrete mixes using PET plastic as aggregate resulted in adequate compressive strengths, but were too dense to be considered ‘lightweight’ concrete. With some adjustments to slightly decrease absorption and unit weight, the PET plastic concrete mixes could be classified as medium weight concrete and, therefore, achieve many of the same benefits as would be seen with lightweight concrete.