DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATIONS OF GENOMIC RESOURCES FOR TWO NORTH AMERICAN HARDWOOD TAXA

Hardwoods comprise about half of the biomass of forestlands in North America and present many uses including economic, ecological and aesthetic functions. Forest trees rely on the genetic variation within tree populations to overcome the many biotic, abiotic, anthropogenic factors which are further worsened by climate change, that threaten their continued survival and functionality. To harness these inherent genetic variations of tree populations, informed knowledge of the genomic resources and techniques, which are currently lacking or very limited, are imperative for forest managers. The current study therefore aimed to develop genomic microsatellite markers for the leguminous tree species, honey locust, Gleditsia triacanthos L. and test their applicability in assessing genetic variation, estimation of gene flow patterns and identification of a full-sib mapping population. We also aimed to test the usefulness of already developed nuclear and gene-based microsatellite markers in delineation of species and taxonomic relationships between four of the taxonomically difficult Section Lobatae species (Quercus coccinea, Q. ellipsoidalis, Q. rubra and Q. velutina. We recorded 100% amplification of G. triacanthos genomic microsatellites developed using Illumina sequencing techniques in a panel of seven unrelated individuals with 14 of these showing high polymorphism and reproducibility. When characterized in 36 natural population samples, we recorded 20 alleles per locus with no indication for null alleles at 13 of the 14 microsatellites. This is the first report of genomic microsatellites for this species. Honey locust trees occur in fragmented populations of abandoned farmlands and pastures and is described as essentially dioecious. Pollen dispersal if the main source of gene flow within and between populations with the ability to offset the effects of random genetic drift. Factors known to influence gene include fragmentation and degree of isolation, which make the patterns gene flow in fragmented populations of honey locust a necessity for their sustainable management. In this follow-up study, we used a subset of nine of the 14 developed gSSRs to estimate gene flow and identify a full-sib mapping population in two isolated fragments of honey locust. Our analyses indicated that the majority of the seedlings (65-100% - at both strict and relaxed assignment thresholds) were sired by pollen from outside the two fragment populations. Only one selfing event was recorded confirming the functional dioeciousness of honey locust and that the seed parents are almost completely outcrossed. From the Butternut Valley, TN population, pollen donor genotypes were reconstructed and used in paternity assignment analyses to identify a relatively large full-sib family comprised of 149 individuals, proving the usefulness of isolated forest fragments in identification of full-sib families. In the Ames Plantation stand, contemporary pollen dispersal followed a fat-tailed exponential-power distribution, an indication of effective gene flow. Our estimate of δ was 4,282.28 m, suggesting that insect pollinators of honey locust disperse pollen over very long distances. The high proportion of pollen influx into our sampled population implies that our fragment population forms part of a large effectively reproducing population. The high tendency of oak species to hybridize while still maintaining their species identity make it difficult to resolve their taxonomic relationships. Oaks of the section Lobatae are famous in this regard and remain unresolved at both morphological and genetic markers. We applied 28 microsatellite markers including outlier loci with potential roles in reproductive isolation and adaptive divergence between species to natural populations of four known interfertile red oaks, Q. coccinea, Q. ellpsoidalis, Q. rubra and Q. velutina. To better resolve the taxonomic relationships in this difficult clade, we assigned individual samples to species, identified hybrids and introgressive forms and reconstructed phylogenetic relationships among the four species after exclusion of genetically intermediate individuals. Genetic assignment analyses identified four distinct species clusters, with Q. rubra most differentiated from the three other species, but also with a comparatively large number of misclassified individuals (7.14%), hybrids (7.14%) and introgressive forms (18.83%) between Q. ellipsoidalis and Q. velutina. After the exclusion of genetically intermediate individuals, Q. ellipsoidalis grouped as sister species to the largely parapatric Q. coccinea with high bootstrap support (91 %). Genetically intermediate forms in a mixed species stand were located proximate to both potential parental species, which supports recent hybridization of Q. velutina with both Q. ellipsoidalis and Q. rubra. Analyses of genome-wide patterns of interspecific differentiation can provide a better understanding of speciation processes and taxonomic relationships in this taxonomically difficult group of red oak species.

The Role of Fraternal Organisation in Migration and Informal Labour Organisations in Mining Communities: Cornwall, the Keweenaw, and California Compared

During the second half of the nineteenth century fraternal and benevolent associations of numerous descriptions grew and prospered in mining communities everywhere. They played an important, but neglected role, in assisting transatlantic migration and movement between mining districts as well as building social capital within emerging mining communities. They helped to build bridges between different ethnic communities, provided conduits between labour and management, and networked miners into the non-mining community. Their influence spread beyond the adult males that made up most of their membership to their wives and families and provided levels of social and economic support otherwise unobtainable at that time. Of course, the influence of these organisations could also be divisive where certain groups or religions were excluded and they may have worked to exacerbate, as much as ameliorate, the problems of community development. This paper will examine some of these issues by looking particularly at the role of Freemasonry and Oddfellowry in Cornwall, Calumet, and Nevada City between 1860 and 1900. Work on fraternity in the Keweenaw was undertaken in Houghton some years ago with a grant from the Copper Country Archive and has since been continued by privately funded research in California and other Western mining states. Some British aspects of this research can be found in my article on mining industrial relations in Labour History Review April 2006

WATER ACCESS AND MAINTENANCE IN KARONGA, MALAWI

This report is a case study of how Mwangalala community accesses water and how that access is maintained. Mwangalala community is located in the northern tip of Karonga district in Malawi, Africa. The case study evaluates how close the community is to meeting target 10 of the Millennium Development Goals, sustainable access to safe drinking water, and evaluates the current water system through Human Centered Design’s criteria of desirability, feasibility, and viability. It also makes recommendations to improve water security in Mwangalala community. Data was collected through two years of immersive observation, interviews with 30 families, and observing two wells on three separate occasions. The 30 interviews provided a sample size of over 10% of the community’s population. Participants were initially self-selected and then invited to participate in the research. I walked along community pathways and accepted invitations to join casual conversations in family compounds. After conversing I asked the family members if they would be willing to participate in my research by talking with me about water. Data collected from the interviews and the observations of two wells were compared and analyzed for common themes. Shallow wells or open wells represented the primary water source for 93% of interview participants. Boreholes were also present in the community, but produced unpalatable water due to high concentrations of dissolved iron and were not used as primary water sources. During observations 75% of community members who used the shallow well, primarily used for consumptive uses like cooking or dinking, were females. Boreholes were primarily used for non-consumptive uses such as watering crops or bathing and 77% of the users were male. Shallow wells could remain in disrepair for two months because the repairman was a volunteer, who was not compensated for the skilled labor required to repair the wells. Community members thought the maintenance fee went towards his salary, so did not compensate the repairman when he performed work. This miscommunication provided no incentive for the repairman to make well repairs a priority, and left community members frustrated with untimely repairs. Shallow wells with functional pumps failed to provide water when the water table levels drop during dry season, forcing community members to seek secondary or tertiary water sources. Open wells, converted from shallow wells after community members did not pay for repairs to the pump, represented 44% of the wells originally installed with Mark V hand pumps. These wells whose pumps were not repaired were located in fields and one beside a church. The functional wells were all located on school grounds or in family compounds, where responsibility for the well’s maintenance is clearly defined. Mwangalala community fails to meet Millennium Development goals because the wells used by the community do not provide sustainable access to safe drinking water. Open wells, used by half the participants in the study, lack a top covering to prevent contamination from debris and wildlife. Shallow well repair times are unsustainable, taking longer than two weeks to be repaired, primarily because the repair persons are expected to provide skilled labor to repair the wells without compensation. Improving water security for Mwangalala can be achieved by improving repair times on shallow wells and making water from boreholes palatable. There are no incentives for a volunteer repair person to fix wells in a timely manner. Repair times can be improved by reducing the number of wells a repair person is responsible for and compensating the person for the skilled labor provided. Water security would be further improved by removing iron particulates from borehole water, thus rendering it palatable. This is possible through point of use filtration utilizing ceramic candles; this would make pumped water available year-round.