Fabrication and characterization of room temperature operating single electron transistors using focused ion beam technologies

The single electron transistor (SET) is a Coulomb blockade device, whose operation is based on the controlled manipulation of individual electrons. Single electron transistors show immense potential to be used in future ultra lowpower devices, high density memory and also in high precision electrometry. Most SET devices operate at cryogenic temperatures, because the charging energy is much smaller than the thermal oscillations. The room temperature operation of these devices is possible with sub- 10nm nano-islands due to the inverse dependance of charging energy on the radius of the conducting nano-island. The fabrication of sub-10nm features with existing lithographic techniques is a technological challenge. Here we present the results for the first room temperature operating SET device fabricated using Focused Ion Beam deposition technology. The SET device, incorporates an array of tungsten nano-islands with an average diameter of 8nm. The SET devices shows clear Coulomb blockade for different gate voltages at room temperature. The charging energy of the device was calculated to be 160.0 meV; the capacitance per junction was found to be 0.94 atto F; and the tunnel resistance per junction was calculated to be 1.26 G Ω. The tunnel resistance is five orders of magnitude larger than the quantum of resistance (26 k Ω) and allows for the localization of electrons on the tungsten nano-island. The lower capacitance of the device combined with the high tunnel resistance, allows for the Coulomb blockade effects observed at room temperature. Different device configurations, minimizing the total capacitance of the device have been explored. The effect of the geometry of the nano electrodes on the device characteristics has been presented. Simulated device characteristics, based on the soliton model have been discussed. The first application of SET device as a gas sensor has been demonstrated.

Micro-fabrication of bio-MEMS based force sensor to measure the force response of living cells

Understanding how a living cell behaves has become a very important topic in today’s research field. Hence, different sensors and testing devices have been designed to test the mechanical properties of these living cells. This thesis presents a method of micro-fabricating a bio-MEMS based force sensor which is used to measure the force response of living cells. Initially, the basic concepts of MEMS have been discussed and the different micro-fabrication techniques used to manufacture various MEMS devices have been described. There have been many MEMS based devices manufactured and employed for testing many nano-materials and bio-materials. Each of the MEMS based devices described in this thesis use a novel concept of testing the specimens. The different specimens tested are nano-tubes, nano-wires, thin film membranes and biological living cells. Hence, these different devices used for material testing and cell mechanics have been explained. The micro-fabrication techniques used to fabricate this force sensor has been described and the experiments preformed to successfully characterize each step in the fabrication have been explained. The fabrication of this force sensor is based on the facilities available at Michigan Technological University. There are some interesting and uncommon concepts in MEMS which have been observed during this fabrication. These concepts in MEMS which have been observed are shown in multiple SEM images.

RF-sputter fabrication of magnetic garnet thin films and simulation modeling for 1-D magnetic photonic crystal waveguide devices

One dimensional magnetic photonic crystals (1D-MPC) are promising structures for integrated optical isolator applications. Rare earth substituted garnet thin films with proper Faraday rotation are required to fabricate planar 1D-MPCs. In this thesis, flat-top response 1D-MPC was proposed and spectral responses and Faraday rotation were modeled. Bismuth substituted iron garnet films were fabricated by RF magnetron sputtering and structures, compositions, birefringence and magnetooptical properties were studied. Double layer structures for single mode propagation were also fabricated by sputtering for the first time. Multilayer stacks with multiple defects (phase shift) composed of Ce-YIG and GGG quarter-wave plates were simulated by the transfer matrix method. The transmission and Faraday rotation characteristics were theoretically studied. It is found that flat-top response, with 100% transmission and near 45o rotation is achievable by adjusting the inter-defect spacing, for film structures as thin as 30 to 35 μm. This is better than 3-fold reduction in length compared to the best Ce-YIG films for comparable rotations, thus allows a considerable reduction in size in manufactured optical isolators. Transmission bands as wide as 7nm were predicted, which is considerable improvement over 2 defects structure. Effect of repetition number and ratio factor on transmission and Faraday rotation ripple factors for the case of 3 and 4 defects structure has been discussed. Diffraction across the structure corresponds to a longer optical path length. Thus the use of guided optics is required to minimize the insertion losses in integrated devices. This part is discussed in chapter 2 in this thesis. Bismuth substituted iron garnet thin films were prepared by RF magnetron sputtering. We investigated or measured the deposition parameters optimization, crystallinity, surface morphologies, composition, magnetic and magnetooptical properties. A very high crystalline quality garnet film with smooth surface has been heteroepitaxially grown on (111) GGG substrate for films less than 1μm. Dual layer structures with two distinct XRD peaks (within a single sputtered film) start to develop when films exceed this thickness. The development of dual layer structure was explained by compositional gradient across film thickness, rather than strain gradient proposed by other authors. Lower DC self bias or higher substrate temperature is found to help to delay the appearance of the 2nd layer. The deposited films show in-plane magnetization, which is advantageous for waveguide devices application. Propagation losses of fabricated waveguides can be decreased by annealing in an oxygen atmosphere from 25dB/cm to 10dB/cm. The Faraday rotation at λ=1.55μm were also measured for the waveguides. FR is small (10° for a 3mm long waveguide), due to the presence of linear birefringence. This part is covered in chapter 4. We also investigated the elimination of linear birefringence by thickness tuning method for our sputtered films. We examined the compressively and tensilely strained films and analyze the photoelastic response of the sputter deposited garnet films. It has been found that the net birefringence can be eliminated under planar compressive strain conditions by sputtering. Bi-layer GGG on garnet thin film yields a reduced birefringence. Temperature control during the sputter deposition of GGG cover layer is critical and strongly influences the magnetization and birefringence level in the waveguide. High temperature deposition lowers the magnetization and increases the linear birefringence in the garnet films. Double layer single mode structures fabricated by sputtering were also studied. The double layer, which shows an in-plane magnetization, has an increased RMS roughness upon upper layer deposition. The single mode characteristic was confirmed by prism coupler measurement. This part is discussed in chapter 5.

DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF RESONANT GAS SENSOR FOR HIGH SENSITIVITY IN THE PRESENCE OF AIR DAMPING

Gas sensors have been used widely in different important area including industrial control, environmental monitoring, counter-terrorism and chemical production. Micro-fabrication offers a promising way to achieve sensitive and inexpensive gas sensors. Over the years, various MEMS gas sensors have been investigated and fabricated. One significant type of MEMS gas sensors is based on mass change detection and the integration with specific polymer. This dissertation aims to make contributions to the design and fabrication of MEMS resonant mass sensors with capacitance actuation and sensing that lead to improved sensitivity. To accomplish this goal, the research has several objectives: (1) Define an effective measure for evaluating the sensitivity of resonant mass devices; (2) Model the effects of air damping on microcantilevers and validate models using laser measurement system (3) Develop design guidelines for improving sensitivity in the presence of air damping; (4) Characterize the degree of uncertainty in performance arising from fabrication variation for one or more process sequences, and establish design guidelines for improved robustness. Work has been completed toward these objectives. An evaluation measure has been developed and compared to an RMS based measure. Analytic models of air damping for parallel plate that include holes are compared with a COMSOL model. The models have been used to identify cantilever design parameters that maximize sensitivity. Additional designs have been modeled with COMSOL and the development of an analytical model for Fixed-free cantilever geometries with holes has been developed. Two process flows have been implemented and compared. A number of cantilever designs have been fabricated and the uncertainty in process has been investigated. Variability from processing have been evaluated and characterized.

Microfluidic fabrication of advanced microcapsules for use in self-healing materials

The proposed work aims to facilitate the development of a microfluidic platform for the production of advanced microcapsules containing active agents which can be the functional constituents of self-healing composites. The creation of such microcapsules is enabled by the unique flow characteristics within microchannels including precise control over shear and interfacial forces for droplet creation and manipulation as well as the ability to form a solid shell either chemically or via the addition of thermal or irradiative energy. Microchannel design and a study of the fluid dynamics and mechanisms for shell creation are undertaken in order to establish a fabrication approach capable of producing healing-agent-containing microcapsules. An in-depth study of the process parameters has been undertaken in order to elucidate the advantages of this production technique including precise control of size (i.e., monodispersity) and surface morphology of the microcapsules. This project also aims to aid the optimization of the mechanical properties as well as healing performance of self-healing composites by studying the effects of the advantageous properties of the as-produced microcapsules. Scale-up of the microfluidic fabrication using parallel devices on a single chip as well as on-chip microcapsule production and shape control will also be investigated. It will be demonstrated that microfluidic fabrication is a versatile approach for the efficient creation of functional microcapsules allowing for superior design of self-healing composites.

Fabrication of nanoparticles by short-distance sputter deposition

During the past decades, tremendous research interests have been attracted to investigate nanoparticles due to their promising catalytic, magnetic, and optical properties. In this thesis, two novel methods of nanoparticle fabrication were introduced and the basic formation mechanisms were studied. Metal nanoparticles and polyurethane nanoparticles were separately fabricated by a short-distance sputter deposition technique and a reactive ion etching process. First, a sputter deposition method with a very short target-substrate distance is found to be able to generate metal nanoparticles on the glass substrate inside a RIE chamber. The distribution and morphology of nanoparticles are affected by the distance, the ion concentration and the process time. Densely-distributed nanoparticles of various compositions are deposited on the substrate surface when the target-substrate distance is smaller than 130mm. It is much less than the atoms’ mean free path, which is the threshold in previous research for nanoparticles’ formation. Island structures are formed when the distance is increased to 510mm, indicating the tendency to form continuous thin film. The trend is different from previously-reported sputtering method for nanoparticle fabrication, where longer distance between the target and the substrate facilitates the formation of nanoparticle. A mechanism based on the seeding effect of the substrate is proposed to interpret the experimental results. Secondly, in polyurethane nanoparticles’ fabrication, a mechanism is put forward based on the microphase separation phenomenon in block copolymer thin film. The synthesized polymers have formed dispersed and continuous phases because of the different properties between segments. With harder mechanical property, the dispersed phase is remained after RIE process while the continuous phase is etched away, leading to the formation of nanoparticles on the substrate. The nanoparticles distribution is found to be affected by the heating effect, the process time and the plasma power. Superhydrophilic property is found on samples with these two types of nanoparticles. The relationship between the nanostructure and the hydrophilicity is studied for further potential applications.