Equations for the Drag Force and Aerodynamic Roughness Length of Urban Areas with Random Building Heights

We use a conceptual model to investigate how randomly varying building heights within a city affect the atmospheric drag forces and the aerodynamic roughness length of the city. The model is based on the assumptions regarding wake spreading and mutual sheltering effects proposed by Raupach (Boundary-Layer Meteorol 60:375-395, 1992). It is applied both to canopies having uniform building heights and to those having the same building density and mean height, but with variability about the mean. For each simulated urban area, a correction is determined, due to height variability, to the shear stress predicted for the uniform building height case. It is found that u (*)/u (*R) , where u (*) is the friction velocity and u (*R) is the friction velocity from the uniform building height case, is expressed well as an algebraic function of lambda and sigma (h) /h (m) , where lambda is the frontal area index, sigma (h) is the standard deviation of the building height, and h (m) is the mean building height. The simulations also resulted in a simple algebraic relation for z (0)/z (0R) as a function of lambda and sigma (h) /h (m) , where z (0) is the aerodynamic roughness length and z (0R) is z (0) found from the original Raupach formulation for a uniform canopy. Model results are in keeping with those of several previous studies.

The Insufficient Void": The Problem of an Earthly Paradise in Wuthering Heights and Dracula"

The aim of my thesis is to chart how death and the spirit world - what might be defined as our living essence - becomes the sites of a new and remarkably subversive Victorian exploration of the supernatural.

Sexing the Male: Manifestations of Masculinity in Jane Eyre, Wuthering Heights, and Villette

Abstract: This project considers Emily and Charlotte Brontë's constructions of masculinity in Jane Eyre, Wuthering Heights, and Villette. There is a vast proliferation of scholarship focusing on gender in the Victorian Era, but as much of this criticism focuses on women, the analysis of heterosexual masculinity in these novels provides a unique perspective on the complexities involved in gender constructions during this period. Masculine identity was in a transitory state in the early nineteenth century, as Romantic values were replaced by Victorian conceptions of masculinity, largely influencing the expectations of men. This paper argues that based on an understanding of femininity and masculinity as defined in relation to each other, the Brontë heroes look to the female characters as a source of stability to define themselves against, constructing a stagnant feminine role to frame an understanding of how masculinity was changing. The female characters resist this categorization, however, never allowing the men to fully classify them into stable feminine roles, which leads both shifting gender roles to intertwine and collapse in the novels, undermining any conceptualization of a stable or universal understanding of gender. The paper considers the role of masculinity based in class, relationships with women, and the understanding of sexual passion, to argue that the Brontës' portrayal of men emulates the anxieties surrounding the shift from Romantic to Victorian values of manliness, ultimately rejecting any stable definition of the nineteenth-century man.