Climate and chemistry effects of a regional scale nuclear conflict

Previous studies have highlighted the severity of detrimental effects for life on earth after an assumed regionally limited nuclear war. These effects are caused by climatic, chemical and radiative changes persisting for up to one decade. However, so far only a very limited number of climate model simulations have been performed, giving rise to the question how realistic previous computations have been. This study uses the coupled chemistry climate model (CCM) SOCOL, which belongs to a different family of CCMs than previously used, to investigate the consequences of such a hypothetical nuclear conflict. In accordance with previous studies, the present work assumes a scenario of a nuclear conflict between India and Pakistan, each applying 50 warheads with an individual blasting power of 15 kt ("Hiroshima size") against the major population centers, resulting in the emission of tiny soot particles, which are generated in the firestorms expected in the aftermath of the detonations. Substantial uncertainties related to the calculation of likely soot emissions, particularly concerning assumptions of target fuel loading and targeting of weapons, have been addressed by simulating several scenarios, with soot emissions ranging from 1 to 12 Tg. Their high absorptivity with respect to solar radiation leads to a rapid self-lofting of the soot particles into the strato- and mesosphere within a few days after emission, where they remain for several years. Consequently, the model suggests earth's surface temperatures to drop by several degrees Celsius due to the shielding of solar irradiance by the soot, indicating a major global cooling. In addition, there is a substantial reduction of precipitation lasting 5 to 10 yr after the conflict, depending on the magnitude of the initial soot release. Extreme cold spells associated with an increase in sea ice formation are found during Northern Hemisphere winter, which expose the continental land masses of North America and Eurasia to a cooling of several degrees. In the stratosphere, the strong heating leads to an acceleration of catalytic ozone loss and, consequently, to enhancements of UV radiation at the ground. In contrast to surface temperature and precipitation changes, which show a linear dependence to the soot burden, there is a saturation effect with respect to stratospheric ozone chemistry. Soot emissions of 5 Tg lead to an ozone column reduction of almost 50% in northern high latitudes, while emitting 12 Tg only increases ozone loss by a further 10%. In summary, this study, though using a different chemistry climate model, corroborates the previous investigations with respect to the atmospheric impacts. In addition to these persistent effects, the present study draws attention to episodically cold phases, which would likely add to the severity of human harm worldwide. The best insurance against such a catastrophic development would be the delegitimization of nuclear weapons.

Assessing the effectiveness of a long-standing rocky intertidal protected area and its contribution to the regional conservation of species, habitats and assemblages

1. The acceptance of reserves as a useful management strategy relies on evidence of their effectiveness in preserving stocks of harvested species and conserving biodiversity. A history of ad hoc decisions in terrestrial and marine protected area planning has meant that many of these areas are contributing inefficiently to conservation goals. The conservation value of existing protected areas should be assessed when planning the placement of additional areas in a reserve network. 2. This study tested (1) the effectiveness of protection for intertidal molluscs of a marine reserve (Bouddi Marine Extension, NSW, Australia) established in 1971, and (2) the contribution of the protected area to the conservation of regional species, assemblages, and habitats. 3. The shell length and population density of one harvested (Cellana tramoserica), and three non-harvested species (Bembicium nanum, Morula marginalba, Nerita atramentosa) of intertidal molluscs were examined in the protected area and two reference locations over two seasons. 4. The heavily collected limpet C. tramoserica was significantly larger in the protected area and was the only species to exhibit a significant difference. No species significantly differed in population density between the protected area and reference locations. 5. Temporally replicated surveys of macro-molluscs at 21 locations over 75km of coastline identified that the existing protected area included 50% of species, two of five assemblage types and 19 of 20 intertidal rocky shore habitats surveyed in the study region. Reservation of a further three rocky reefs would protect a large proportion of species (71%), a representative of each assemblage and all habitat types. 6. Despite originally being selected in the absence of information on regional biodiversity, the protected area is today an effective starting point for expansion to a regional network of intertidal protected areas.

Lateralized and frequency-dependent effects of prefrontal rTMS on regional cerebral blood flow

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a means to study the function and connectivity of brain areas. The present study addressed the question of hemispheric asymmetry of frontal regions and aimed to further understand the acute effects of high- and low-frequency rTMS on regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF). Sixteen healthy right-handed men were imaged using H(2)(15)O positron emission tomography (PET) immediately after stimulation. High (10 Hz)- and low (1 Hz)-frequency suprathreshold short-duration rTMS was applied over either the left or right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Slow and fast rTMS applied over the left DLPFC significantly increased CBF in the stimulated area. Compared to baseline, slow rTMS induced a significant increase in CBF contralateral to the stimulation site, in the right caudate body and in the anterior cingulum. Furthermore, slow rTMS decreased CBF in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC, ipsilateral to stimulation side). Fast rTMS applied over the right DLPFC was associated with increased activity at the stimulation site, in the bilateral orbitofrontal cortex and in the left medial thalamus compared to 1-Hz rTMS. These results show that rCBF changes induced by prefrontal rTMS differ upon hemisphere stimulated and vary with stimulation frequency. These differential neurophysiological effects of short-train rTMS with respect to side and frequency suggest hemisphere-dependent functional circuits of frontal cortico-subcortical areas.

The 2015 National Elections in Switzerland: Renewed Polarization and Shift to the Right

The 2015 election to the Swiss Parliament marks a return to an already observed trend that was only interrupted in 2011: a shift to the right and an increase in polarization. The vote share of the nationalist-conservative Swiss People's Party (SVP) has now reached a historical height of 29.4% (+2.8). This note discusses why cantons matter in the Swiss national elections, and to what degree elections have become nationalized. Institutionally, the 26 cantons serve as electoral districts. This leads to a highly disproportional electoral system and has magnified the minor vote shifts to a slightly more pronounced shift in seats, with the right now holding a tiny majority of 101 of 200 seats in the first chamber. The two winners, the SVP and the Liberals, also had most campaign funds at their disposal. They were able to guide an extensive nationwide campaign in which they advocated their core issues instead of candidates. Other parties only advertised at the cantonal level.

Real-time evaluation of diffusion of the local anesthetic solution during peribulbar block using ultrasound imaging and clinical correlates of diffusion

The aims of this prospective observational study were to assess the incidence of intraconal spread during peribulbar (extraconal) anesthesia by real-time ultrasound imaging of the retro-orbital compartment and to determine whether a complete sensory and motor block (with akinesia) of the eye is directly related to the intraconal spread.

Influence of end-expiratory level and tidal volume on gravitational ventilation distribution during tidal breathing in healthy adults

Our understanding of regional filling of the lung and regional ventilation distribution is based on studies using stepwise inhalation of radiolabelled tracer gases, magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography. We aimed to investigate whether these differences in ventilation distribution at different end-expiratory levels (EELs) and tidal volumes (V (T)s) held also true during tidal breathing. Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) measurements were performed in ten healthy adults in the right lateral position. Five different EELs with four different V (T)s at each EEL were tested in random order, resulting in 19 combinations. There were no measurements for the combination of the highest EEL/highest V (T). EEL and V (T) were controlled by visual feedback based on airflow. The fraction of ventilation directed to different slices of the lung (VENT(RL1)-VENT(RL8)) and the rate of the regional filling of each slice versus the total lung were analysed. With increasing EEL but normal tidal volume, ventilation was preferentially distributed to the dependent lung and the filling of the right and left lung was more homogeneous. With increasing V (T) and maintained normal EEL (FRC), ventilation was preferentially distributed to the dependent lung and regional filling became more inhomogeneous (p < 0.05). We could demonstrate that regional and temporal ventilation distribution during tidal breathing was highly influenced by EEL and V (T).

Detection of regional blood perfusion changes in epileptic seizures with dynamic brain perfusion CT--a pilot study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Perfusion CT (P-CT) is used for acute stroke management, not, however, for evaluating epilepsy. To test the hypothesis that P-CT may identify patients with increased regional cerebral blood flow during subtle status epilepticus (SSE), we compared P-CT in SSE to different postictal conditions. METHODS: Fifteen patients (mean age 47 years, range 21-74) underwent P-CT immediately after evaluation in our emergency room. Asymmetry indices between affected and unaffected hemispheres were calculated for regional cerebral blood volume (rCBV), regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF), and mean transit time (MTT). Regional perfusion changes were compared to EEG findings. RESULTS: Three patients in subtle status epilepticus (group 1) had increased regional perfusion with electro-clinical correlate. Six patients showed postictal slowing on EEG corresponding to an area of regional hypoperfusion (group 2). CT and EEG were normal in six patients with a first epileptic seizure (group 3). Cluster analysis of asymmetry indices separated SSE from the other two groups in all three parameters, while rCBF helped to distinguish between chronic focal epilepsies and single events. CONCLUSION: Preliminary results indicate that P-CT may help to identify patients with SSE during emergency workup. This technique provides important information to neurologists or emergency physicians in the difficult clinical differential diagnosis of altered mental status due to subtle status epilepticus.

The Mediterranean climate: An overview of the main characteristics and issues

The Mediterranean Region has many morphologic, geographical, historical, and societal characteristics, which make its climate scientifically interesting. The concept of Mediterranean climate is characterized by mild wet winters and warm to hot, dry summers and occur on the west side of continents between about 30° and 40° latitude. However, the presence of a relatively large mass of water is unique to the actual Mediterranean region. The Mediterranean Sea is a marginal and semi-enclosed sea; it is located on the western side of a large continental area and is surrounded by Europe to the North, Africa to the South, and Asia to the East. The chapter discusses that the climate of the Mediterranean region is to a large extent forced by planetary scale patterns. The time and space behavior of the regional features associated with such large-scale forcing is complex. Orography and land–sea distribution play an important role establishing the climate at basin scale and its teleconnections with global patterns. Different levels of services of readiness to emergencies, technological, and economic resources are likely to result in very different adaptation capabilities to environmental changes and new problems. The different economic situations and demographic trends are likely to produce contrasts and conflicts in a condition of limited available resources and environmental stress.

Dispersal and seed limitation affect diversity and productivity of montane grasslands

So far, seed limitation as a local process, and dispersal limitation as a regional process have been largely neglected in biodiversity-ecosystem functioning research. However, these processes can influence both local plant species diversity and ecosystem processes, such as biomass production. We added seeds of 60 species from the regional species pool to grassland communities at 20 montane grassland sites in Germany. In these sites, plant species diversity ranged from 10 to 34 species m(-2) and, before manipulation, diversity was not related to aboveground biomass, which ranged from 108 to 687 g m(-2). One year after seed addition, local plant species richness had increased on average by six species m(-2) (29%) compared with control plots, and this increase was highest in grasslands with intermediate productivity. The increased diversity after adding seeds was associated with an average increase of aboveground biomass of 36 g m(-2) (14.8%) compared with control plots. Thus, our results demonstrate that a positive relationship between changes in species richness and productivity, as previously reported from experimental plant communities, also holds for natural grassland ecosystems. Our results show that local plant communities are dispersal limited and a hump-shaped model appears to be the limiting outline of the natural diversity-productivity relationship. Hence, the effects of dispersal on local diversity can substantially affect the functioning of natural ecosystems.

Differences between recent and historical records of upperspecies limits in the northern European Alps

Are there differences in historical and recent upper range limits of vascular plants and are such differences more pronounced in individual species groups? The limits of 1103 plants of the Northern Alps are compared to range limits in the mid-19th century. The comparison is based on two surveys. The first survey was conducted by Otto Sendtner in 1848–1853, the second in 1991–2008 during a habitat inventory. To our knowledge this is the first comparative studies reaching back to the end of the “Little Ice Age” and comprising an almost entire regional flora covering the complete range of habitats. During the recent survey, most species were found at higher elevations. Even though the differences fit well with the expected shifts due to climate warming we cannot exclude effects of sampling bias. However, we assume that the relative differences between species groups can be safely interpreted. The differences in upper limits between both surveys were significantly larger among forest species. The most important reason is probably discontinued pasture and mowing, which may have amplified possible warming effects. Nitrogen deposits may have contributed to this effect by placing competitive species in a more advantageous position.

Relaxation in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and hypertensive heart disease: relations between hypertrophy and diastolic function

AIM To determine the relation between the extent and distribution of left ventricular hypertrophy and the degree of disturbance of regional relaxation and global left ventricular filling. METHODS Regional wall thickness (rWT) was measured in eight myocardial regions in 17 patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, 12 patients with hypertensive heart disease, and 10 age matched normal subjects, and an asymmetry index calculated. Regional relaxation was assessed in these eight regions using regional isovolumetric relaxation time (rIVRT) and early to late peak filling velocity ratio (rE/A) derived from Doppler tissue imaging. Asynchrony of rIVRT was calculated. Doppler left ventricular filling indices were assessed using the isovolumetric relaxation time, the deceleration time of early diastolic filling (E-DT), and the E/A ratio. RESULTS There was a correlation between rWT and both rIVRT and rE/A in the two types of heart disease (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: r = 0.47, p < 0.0001 for rIVRT; r = -0.20, p < 0.05 for rE/A; hypertensive heart disease: r = 0.21, p < 0.05 for rIVRT; r = -0.30, p = 0.003 for rE/A). The degree of left ventricular asymmetry was related to prolonged E-DT (r = 0. 50, p = 0.001) and increased asynchrony (r = 0.42, p = 0.002) in all patients combined, but not within individual groups. Asynchrony itself was associated with decreased E/A (r = -0.39, p = 0.01) and protracted E-DT (r = 0.69, p < 0.0001) and isovolumetric relaxation time (r = 0.51, p = 0.001) in all patients. These correlations were still significant for E-DT in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (r = 0.56, p = 0.02) and hypertensive heart disease (r = 0.59, p < 0.05) and for isovolumetric relaxation time in non-obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (n = 8, r = 0.87, p = 0.005). CONCLUSIONS Non-invasive ultrasonographic examination of the left ventricle shows that in both hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and hypertensive heart disease, the local extent of left ventricular hypertrophy is associated with regional left ventricular relaxation abnormalities. Asymmetrical distribution of left ventricular hypertrophy is indirectly related to global left ventricular early filling abnormalities through regional asynchrony of left ventricular relaxation.

Bias associated with detrital zircon geochronology and thermochronometry

Detrital studies that utilize zircon U–Pb geochronology and fission-track (FT) thermochronometry are subject to a range of potential sources of bias that should be properly evaluated and minimized. Some of them are common to any single-grain mineral analysis (e.g., variable bedrock mineral fertility, hydraulic sorting during transport, selective grain loss during sample processing), whereas others are intrinsic to zircon, and are related to radiation damage and age discordance. In this article, we quantify the impact of intrinsic bias on detrital studies thanks to the analysis of modern detritus shed from the European Alps, and illustrate the general implications on geological interpretations. We show that detrital zircon U–Pb age distributions based on statistically robust datasets are highly reproducible and representative of the parent bedrock ages in the catchment. Arbitrary or selective removal of discordant grain ages can be minimized by using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test to identify an appropriate cutoff level. Loss of metamict (α-damaged) zircon has a minor impact on data representativeness, and is mainly controlled by regional metamorphism rather than by mechanical abrasion during river transport. Zircon FT grain-age distributions were found to have poor reproducibility, although age spectra are consistent with bedrock data. However, unlike the U–Pb datasets, U-rich zircon grains (> 1000 ppm) are systematically missed, and undatable grains may exceed 50%. We identify two major sources of distribution bias specific to zircon FT datasets: (i) sediment sources dominated by U-rich zircon grains are markedly underrepresented in the detrital record, because such grains often have uncountable high densities of fission tracks (“U concentration bias”); (ii) sediment sources that shed zircon grains with high levels of α-damage are underrepresented, because these grains are lost during chemical etching for FT revelation (“etching bias”). In the case of multimethod dating on the same grains (e.g., FT and U–Pb double dating), bias affecting detrital zircon FT dating propagates to the entire dataset. These effects may not impact on exhumation-rate studies that utilize the youngest grain ages (i.e., lag-time approach). However, they represent a limiting factor for conventional provenance studies, and generally preclude application of zircon FT dating to sediment budget calculations.

Rezension zu: Irini Katsirea, Public Broadcasting and European Law

Public broadcasting has always been a regulatory field somewhat zealously guarded within the nation states' sphere and kept willingly untouched by regional or international rules. Values inherent to the role of public broadcasting, such as cultural and national identity, social cohesion, pluralism and a sustained public sphere, were thought too critical and too historically connected with the particular society to allow any "outside" influence. Different regulatory models have emerged to reflect these specificities within the national boundaries of European countries. Yet, as media evolved technologically and economically, the constraints of state borders were rendered obsolete and the inner tension between culture and commerce of the television medium became more pronounced. This tension was only intensified with the formulation of a European Community (EC) layer of regulation, which had as its primary objective the creation of a single market for audiovisual services (or as the EC Directive beautifully put it, a "Television without Frontiers"), while also including some provisions catering for cultural concerns, such as the infamous quota system for European and independent productions. Against this backdrop, public broadcasting makes a particularly intriguing subject for a study of regulatory dilemmas of national versus supranational, integration versus intergovernmentalism, culture versus commerce, intervention versus liberalisation, and all this in the dynamic setting of contemporary media. The present paper reviews Irini Katsirea's book PUBLIC BROADCASTING AND EUROPEAN LAW and seeks to identify whether all elements of the complex governance puzzle of European public service broadcasting rules are analytically well fitted together.