Farming Systems and Resilience Building in a Changing Climate On-Farm Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Cocoa Cultivation in Alto Beni, Bolivia

Resilience research has been applied to socioeconomic as well as for agroecological studies in the last 20 years. It provides a conceptual and methodological approach for a better understanding of interrelations between the performance of ecological and social systems. In the research area Alto Beni, Bolivia, the production of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), is one of the main sources of income. Farmers in the region have formed producers’ associations to enhance organic cocoa cultivation and obtain fair prices since the 1980s. In cooperation with the long-term system comparisons by the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) in Alto Beni, aspects of the field trial are applied for the use in on-farm research: a comparison of soil fertility, biomass and crop diversity is combined with qualitative interviews and participatory observation methods. Fieldwork is carried out together with Bolivian students through the Swiss KFPE-programme Echanges Universitaires. For the system comparisons, four different land-use types were classified according to their ecological complexity during a preliminary study in 2009: successional agroforestry systems, simple agroforestry systems (both organically managed and certified), traditional systems and conventional monocultures. The study focuses on interrelations between different ways of cocoa cultivation, livelihoods and the related socio-cultural rationales behind them. In particular this second aspect is innovative as it allows to broaden the biophysical perspective to a more comprehensive evaluation with socio-ecological aspects thereby increasing the relevance of the agronomic field studies for development policy and practice. Moreover, such a socio-ecological baseline allows to assess the potential of organic agriculture regarding resilience-building face to socio-environmental stress factors. Among others, the results of the pre-study illustrate local farmers’ perceptions of climate change and the consequences for the different crop-systems: all interviewees mentioned rising temperatures and/or an extended dry season as negative impacts more with regard to their own working conditions than to their crops. This was the case in particular for conventional monocultures and in plots where slash-and-burn cultivation was practised whereas for organic agroforestry systems the advantage of working in the shade was stressed indicating that their relevance rises in the context of climate change.

Subclinical mastitis in dairy cows in Swiss organic and conventional production systems

The objective was to compare the prevalence of subclinical mastitis (SM) and of udder pathogens in 60 Swiss organic (OP) and 60 conventional production systems (CP). Cows (n=970) were studied for SM prevalence and udder pathogens at median 31 d and 102 d post partum. Cows showing a >/=1+ positive California Mastitis Test (CMT) in at least one quarter were considered to have SM. Cow-level prevalences of SM for visits at 31 d and 102 d post partum (39% and 40% in OP and 34% and 35% in CP) were similar, but quarter-level prevalences of SM were higher (P<0.02) in OP than CP (15% and 18% in OP and 12% and 15% in CP). Median somatic cell counts in milk at 31 d post partum were higher (P<0.05) in OP than CP cows (43000 and 28000 cells/ml, respectively), but were similar at 102 d post partum in OP and CP cows (45000 and 38000 cells/ml, respectively). In milk samples from quarters showing a CMT reaction >/=2+ the prevalences of coagulase negative staphylococci were lower (P<0.05) at 102 d post partum, whereas prevalences of non-agalactiae streptococci were higher (P<0.05) in OP than in CP cows at 31 d and 102 d post partum. In conclusion, under Swiss conditions, subclinical mastitis is a greater problem in organic than in conventional production systems, but differences are not marked.

Farm resilience in organic and nonorganic cocoa farming systems in Alto Beni, Bolivia

Cocoa production in Alto Beni, Bolivia, is a major source of income and is severely affected by climate change impacts and other stress factors. Resilient farming systems are, thus, important for local families. This study compares indicators for social–ecological resilience in 30 organic and 22 nonorganic cocoa farms of Alto Beni. Organic farms had a higher tree and crop diversity, higher yields and incomes, more social connectedness, and participated in more courses on cocoa cultivation. Resilience was enhanced by local farmers’ organizations, providing organic certification and supporting diversified agroforestry with seedlings and extension, going beyond basic organic certification requirements.

Potential and limitations of organic and fair trade cotton for improving livelihoods of smallholders: evidence from Central Asia

Cotton is a leading agricultural non-food commodity associated with soil degradation, water pollution and pesticide poisoning due to high levels of agrochemical inputs. Organic farming is often promoted as a means of addressing the economic, environmental and health risks of conventional cotton production, and it is slowly gaining ground in the global cotton market. Organic and fair trade cotton are widely seen as opportunities for smallholder farmers to improve their livelihoods thanks to higher returns, lower input costs and fewer risks. Despite an increasing number of studies comparing the profitability of organic and non-organic farming systems in developing and industrialized countries, little has been published on organic farming in Central Asia. The aim of this article is to describe the economic performance and perceived social and environmental impacts of organic cotton in southern Kyrgyzstan, drawing on a comparative field study conducted by the author in 2009. In addition to economic and environmental aspects, the study investigated farmers’ motivations toward and assessment of conversion to organic farming. Cotton yields on organic farms were found to be 10% lower, while input costs per unit were 42% lower; as a result, organic farmers’ cotton revenues were 20% higher. Due to lower input costs as well as organic and fair trade price premiums, the average gross margin from organic cotton was 27% higher. In addition to direct economic benefits, organic farmers enjoy other benefits, such as easy access to credit on favorable terms, provision of uncontaminated cottonseed cooking oil and cottonseed cake as animal feed, and marketing support as well as extension and training services provided by newly established organic service providers. The majority of organic farmers perceive improved soil quality, improved health conditions, and positively assess their initial decision to convert to organic farming. The major disadvantage of organic farming is the high manual labor input required. In the study area, where manual farm work is mainly women's work and male labor migration is widespread, women are most affected by this negative aspect of organic farming. Altogether, the results suggest that, despite the inconvenience of a higher workload, the advantages of organic farming outweigh its disadvantages and that conversion to organic farming improves the livelihoods of small-scale farmers.

Management, feeding, production, reproduction and udder health on organic and conventional Swiss dairy farms

Organic dairy farms (OP; n=60) and conventional dairy farms (integrated production, IP; n=60), matched in size, location, and agricultural zone (altitude), were studied for possible differences in management, feeding, production, reproduction and udder health. OP and IP farms were similar in size (17.7 and 16.9 ha), milk quota (65900 and 70,000 kg/year), cow number (14 and 15), cow age (5.3 and 5.2 years), housing of cows of the Simmental x Red Holstein or Holstein breeds (87 and 75%; 45 and 60%), but differed significantly with respect to loose housing systems (18 and 7%), outside paddocks (98 and 75%), energy-corrected 305-d milk yield (5,695 and 6,059 kg), milk protein content (31.8 and 32.7 g/kg), use of bucket milking systems (73 and 33%), observance of regular (12-h) milking intervals (47 and 68%), routine application of the California-Mastitis-Test (10 and 28%), teat dipping after milking (25 and 43%) and blanket dry cow treatments (0 and 45%). Milk somatic cell counts on OP and IP farms (119 000 and 117,000/mL) and reproduction data were similar and there were no significant differences between OP and IP farms as concerns available feeds, planning and management of feeding. Alternative veterinary treatments were used more often on OP than IP farms (55 and 17%). Main causes for cow replacements on OP and IP farms were fertility disorders (both 45%), age (40 and 42%), sale (30 and 37%) and udder health (35 and 13%).Between OP and IP Swiss dairy farms thus relatively few larger differences were found.

Comparison of antibiotic resistance of udder pathogens in dairy cows kept on organic and on conventional farms

There has been a rapid rise in the emergence of multi-drug-resistant pathogens in the past 10 to 15 yr and some bacteria are now resistant to most antimicrobial agents. Antibiotic use is very restricted on Swiss organic dairy farms, and a purely prophylactic use, such as for dry cow mastitis prevention, is forbidden. A low prevalence of antibiotic resistance in organic farms can be expected compared with conventional farms because the bacteria are infrequently or not exposed to antibiotics. The occurrence of antibiotic resistance was compared between mastitis pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus, nonaureus staphylococci, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Streptococcus uberis) from farms with organic and conventional dairy production. Clear differences in the percentage of antibiotic resistance were mainly species-related, but did not differ significantly between isolates from cows kept on organic and conventional farms, except for Streptococcus uberis, which exhibited significantly more single resistances (compared with no resistance) when isolated from cows kept on organic farms (6/10 isolates) than on conventional farms (0/5 isolates). Different percentages were found (albeit not statistically significant) in resistance to ceftiofur, erythromycin, clindamycin, enrofloxacin, chloramphenicol, penicillin, oxacillin, gentamicin, tetracycline, and quinupristin-dalfopristin, but, importantly, none of the strains was resistant to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid or vancomycin. Multidrug resistance was rarely encountered. The frequency of antibiotic resistance in organic farms, in which the use of antibiotics must be very restricted, was not different from conventional farms, and was contrary to expectation. The antibiotic resistance status needs to be monitored in organic farms as well as conventional farms and production factors related to the absence of reduced antibiotic resistance in organic farms need to be evaluated.

Clinical evaluation of root filled teeth restored with or without post-and-core systems in a specialist practice setting

AIM: To assess survival rates and complications of root-filled teeth restored with or without post-and-core systems over a mean observation period of >or=4 years. METHODOLOGY: A total of 325 single- and multirooted teeth in 183 subjects treated in a private practice were root filled and restored with either a cast post-and-core or with a prefabricated titanium post and composite core. Root-filled teeth without post-retained restorations served as controls. The restored teeth served as abutments for single unit metal-ceramic or composite crowns or fixed bridges. Teeth supporting cantilever bridges, overdentures or telescopic crowns were excluded. RESULTS: Seventeen teeth in 17 subjects were lost to follow-up (17/325: 5.2%). The mean observation period was 5.2 +/- 1.8 (SD) years for restorations with titanium posts, 6.2 +/- 2.0 (SD) years for cast post-and-cores and 4.4 +/- 1.7 (SD) years for teeth without posts. Overall, 54% of build-ups included the incorporation of a titanium post and 26.5% the cementation of a cast post-and-core. The remaining 19.5% of the teeth were restored without intraradicular retention. The adjusted 5-year tooth survival rate amounted to 92.5% for teeth restored with titanium posts, to 97.1% for teeth restored with cast post-and-cores and to 94.3% for teeth without post restorations, respectively. The most frequent complications included root fracture (6.2%), recurrent caries (1.9%), post-treatment periradicular disease (1.6%) and loss of retention (1.3%). CONCLUSION: Provided that high-quality root canal treatment and restorative protocols are implemented, high survival and low complication rates of single- and multirooted root-filled teeth used as abutments for fixed restorations can be expected after a mean observation period of >or=4 years.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, a new method for rapid determination of total organic and inorganic carbon and biogenic silica concentration in lake sediments

Abstract We demonstrate the use of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIRS) to make quantitative measures of total organic carbon (TOC), total inorganic carbon (TIC) and biogenic silica (BSi) concentrations in sediment. FTIRS is a fast and costeffective technique and only small sediment samples are needed (0.01 g). Statistically significant models were developed using sediment samples from northern Sweden and were applied to sediment records from Sweden, northeast Siberia and Macedonia. The correlation between FTIRS-inferred values and amounts of biogeochemical constituents assessed conventionally varied between r = 0.84–0.99 for TOC, r = 0.85– 0.99 for TIC, and r = 0.68–0.94 for BSi. Because FTIR spectra contain information on a large number of both inorganic and organic components, there is great potential for FTIRS to become an important tool in paleolimnology.

The Science of Exoplanets and Their Systems

A scientific forum on “The Future Science of Exoplanets and Their Systems,” sponsored by Europlanet* and the International Space Science Institute (ISSI)† and co-organized by the Center for Space and Habitability (CSH)‡ of the University of Bern, was held during December 5 and 6, 2012, in Bern, Switzerland. It gathered 24 well-known specialists in exoplanetary, Solar System, and stellar science to discuss the future of the fast-expanding field of exoplanetary research, which now has nearly 1000 objects to analyze and compare and will develop even more quickly over the coming years. The forum discussions included a review of current observational knowledge, efforts for exoplanetary atmosphere characterization and their formation, water formation, atmospheric evolution, habitability aspects, and our understanding of how exoplanets interact with their stellar and galactic environment throughout their history. Several important and timely research areas of focus for further research efforts in the field were identified by the forum participants. These scientific topics are related to the origin and formation of water and its delivery to planetary bodies and the role of the disk in relation to planet formation, including constraints from observations as well as star-planet interaction processes and their consequences for atmosphere-magnetosphere environments, evolution, and habitability. The relevance of these research areas is outlined in this report, and possible themes for future ISSI workshops are identified that may be proposed by the international research community over the coming 2–3 years.