Análisis de tenencia y uso de la tierra en dos comunidades campesinas en Cochabamba, Bolivia, en relación a la Ley INRA

La Reforma Agraria del 1953 trajo un nuevo régimen y nuevas políticas agrarias que estaban dirigidos a la modernización de Bolivia, y logró la abolición de las formas de servidumbre a las que estaba sometida la población indígena originario campesina. Sin embargo, a más tardar en los años 70, quedó claro que la Reforma Agraria no pudo cumplir con las expectaciones de la población indígena campesina, y que no hubo voluntad política de implementarla. Entre los numerosos déficit de la reforma, destacan la continua inequidad en el acceso y en la distribución de la tierra; la creación de nuevos latifundios de carácter capitalista en el oriente y de minifundios en el altiplano y valle; la inseguridad jurídica; la sobreposición de derechos; y una institucionalidad pública desacreditada. En el marco de cambios políticos en todo Latinoamerica en los años 90, se introdujo una serie de reformas que reconocen el carácter multi-étnico y pluricultural del país. La Ley INRA (Ley del Instituto Nacional de Reforma Agraria) del 1996 trajo un reconocimiento formal de los sistemas de tenencia de la tierra indígenas bajo el patrocinio del neoliberalismo. Un eje central de la ley es el saneamiento de la propiedad agraria. Después de una década de vigencia, la ley resultó ser insuficiente, el saneamiento burocrático, lento, costoso y con resultados no muy satisfactorios. En 2006, el gobierno de Evo Morales modificó la ley mediante la Ley de Reconducción Comunitaria de la Reforma Agraria. Desde entonces, el proceso de saneamiento ha avanzado significantamente en las tierras bajas y el altiplano norte, mientras en Potosí, Tarija, Oruro y Cochabamba el proceso sigue siendo lento. Eso tiene que ver con las particularidades históricas, culturales, sociales, económicas y ecológicas de las diferentes regiones de Bolivia, cuales la Ley INRA no logra a captar. La presente tesis tiene como objetivo analizar las formas de tenencia y uso de la tierra y las instituciones sociales mediantes las cuales estos están reguladas en dos comunidades del Valle de Cochabamba. Las sistemas de tenencia de la tierra elaboradas por las familias campesinas luego se analizaron en relación a la Ley INRA. El área de estudio es localizado en el municipio de Sipe Sipe, provincia de Quillacollo, departamento de Cochabamba. La población consiste de campesinos perteneciendo al grupo etno-lingüistico quechua, cuya subsistencia depende de la producción agropecuaria y, en la mayoría de los casos, del trabajo asalariado. Las comunidades están situadas total- o parcialmente dentro del Parque Nacional Tunari. La ley del parque del 1991 expropia a las personas que viven dentro de los límites de este. Sin embargo, hasta hoy no ha sido implementada, excepto en 1% de la superficie total; las dos comunidades hasta ahora no han sido afectadas. Las dos comunidades de estudio han desarrollado una compleja combinación de propiedad familiar y propiedad comunal, que tiene su raíz en el sistema de haciendas, la forma predominante de tenencia de la tierra en el departamento de Cochabamba hasta la Reforma Agraria. El acceso al territorio comunal y el uso de los recursos naturales es gestionado por un sindicato agrario y una variedad de instituciones sociales. Se analizaron las estrategias de hogar de seis familias de Link’u comparandolas con las demás datos obtenidos. En Lap’iani, la comunidad menos accesible, las familias dependen de gran parte de la producción agropecuaria, mientras en Link’u, que está localizado cerca del pueblo de Sipe Sipe, la mayoría de las familias combina la agricultura con el trabajo asalariado. En ambas comunidades, la educación formal de los hijos y la migración temporal o permanente constituyen pilares fundamentales de las estrategias familiares. En Link’u se ha mostrado un proceso de urbanización que se expresa en un plan de desarrollo futuro que prevée la transformación de la zona periurbana de la comunidad en propiedad familiar o área urbana. Estos cambios en las estrategias de las familias y de la comunidad pueden explicarse por condiciones dinámico socioeconómicas, ecológicas y político-administrativas. Los resultados de la investigación muestran que los campesinos en las comunidades de estudio diversifican sus estrategias de vida para enfrentar al minifundio. Estas estrategias consisten en la producción agropecuaria en diferentes pisos ecológicos (control vertical de la ecología), la educación, la migración, la integración al mercado, el trabajo asalariado, y, en el caso de Link’u, en la propiedad individual de la tierra. El sistema de tenencia de la tierra es marcado por la interlegalidad o el bricolage de leyes formales y normas consuetudinarias. La Ley INRA desempeña para ambas comunidades un papel marginal. Se mostró que el sistema de tenencia y uso de la tierra es complejo, flexible y persistente. Combina diferentes tipos de propiedad y permite diferentes formas de organización dependiendo del área (rural/urbana).

Late Pleistocene glaciation in the Central Andes: Temperature versus humidity control A case study from the eastern Bolivian Andes (17°S) and regional synthesis

A glacier–climate model was used to calculate climatic conditions in a test site on the east Andean slope around Cochabamba (17°S, Bolivia) for the time of the maximum Late Pleistocene glaciation. Results suggest a massive temperature reduction of about − 6.4 °C (+ 1.4/− 1.3 °C), combined with annual precipitation rates of about 1100 mm (+ 570 mm/− 280 mm). This implies no major change in annual precipitation compared with today. Summer precipitation was the source for the humidity in the past, as is the case today. This climate scenario argues for a maximum advance of the paleo-glaciers in the eastern cordillera during the global Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 20 ka BP), which is confirmed by exposure age dates. In a synthesized view over the central Andes, the results point to an increased summer precipitation-driven Late Glacial (15–10 ka BP) maximum advance in the western part of the Altiplano (18°S–23°S), a temperature-driven maximum advance during full glacial times (LGM) in the eastern cordillera, and a pre- and post-LGM (32 ka BP/14 ka BP) maximum advance around 30°S related to increased precipitation and reduced temperature on the western slope of the Andes. The results indicate the importance of understanding the seasonality and details of the mass balance–climate interaction in order to disentangle drivers for the observed regionally asynchronous past glaciations in the central Andes.

Mid-Holocene Climate and Culture Change in the South Central Ande

This chapter reviews the history of study and the current status of Mid-Holocene climatic and cultural change in the South Central Andes, which host a wide range of different habitats from Pacific coastal areas up to extremely harsh cold and dry environments of the high mountain plateau, the altiplano or the puna. Paleoenvironmental information reveals high amplitude and rapid changes in effective moisture during the Holocene period and, consequently, dramatically changing environmental conditions. Therefore, this area is suitable to study the response of hunting and gathering societies to environmental changes, because the smallest variations in the climatic conditions have large impacts on resources and the living space of humans. This chapter analyzes environmental and paleoclimatic information from lake sediments, ice cores, pollen profiles, and geomorphic processes and relates these with the cultural and geographic settlement patterns of human occupation in the different habitats in the area of southern Peru, southwest Bolivia, northwest Argentina, and north Chile and puts in perspective of the early and late Holocene to present a representative range of environmental and cultural changes. It has been found that the largest changes took place around 9000 cal yr BP when the humid early Holocene conditions were replaced by extremely arid but highly variable climatic conditions. These resulted in a marked decrease of human occupation, “ecological refuges,” increased mobility, and an orientation toward habitats with relatively stable resources (such as the coast, the puna seca, and “ecological refuges”).

Paleo erosion rates and climate shifts recorded by Quaternary cut-and-fill sequences in the Pisco valley, central Peru

Fluvial cut-and-fill sequences have frequently been reported from various sites on Earth. Nevertheless, the information about the past erosional regime and hydrological conditions have not yet been adequately deciphered from these archives. The Quaternary terrace sequences in the Pisco valley, located at ca. 13°S, offer a manifestation of an orbitally-driven cyclicity in terrace construction where phases of sediment accumulation have been related to the Minchin (48–36 ka) and Tauca (26–15 ka) lake level highstands on the Altiplano. Here, we present a 10Be-based sediment budget for the cut-and-fill terrace sequences in this valley to quantify the orbitally forced changes in precipitation and erosion. We find that the Minchin period was characterized by an erosional pulse along the Pacific coast where denudation rates reached values as high as 600±80 mm/ka600±80 mm/ka for a relatively short time span lasting a few thousands of years. This contrasts to the younger pluvial periods and the modern situation when 10Be-based sediment budgets register nearly zero erosion at the Pacific coast. We relate these contrasts to different erosional conditions between the modern and the Minchin time. First, the sediment budget infers a precipitation pattern that matches with the modern climate ca. 1000 km farther north, where highly erratic and extreme El Niño-related precipitation results in fast erosion and flooding along the coast. Second, the formation of a thick terrace sequence requires sufficient material on catchment hillslopes to be stripped off by erosion. This was most likely the case immediately before the start of the Minchin period, because this erosional epoch was preceded by a >50 ka-long time span with poorly erosive climate conditions, allowing for sufficient regolith to build up on the hillslopes. Finally, this study suggests a strong control of orbitally and ice sheet forced latitudinal shifts of the ITCZ on the erosional gradients and sediment production on the western escarpment of the Peruvian Andes at 13° during the Minchin period.

Pb pollution from leaded gasoline in South America in the context of a 2000-year metallurgical history

Exploitation of the extensive polymetallic deposits of the Andean Altiplano in South America since precolonial times has caused substantial emissions of neurotoxic lead (Pb) into the atmosphere; however, its historical significance compared to recent Pb pollution from leaded gasoline is not yet resolved. We present a comprehensive Pb emission history for the last two millennia for South America, based on a continuous, high-resolution, ice core record from Illimani glacier. Illimani is the highest mountain of the eastern Bolivian Andes and is located at the northeastern margin of the Andean Altiplano. The ice core Pb deposition history revealed enhanced Pb enrichment factors (EFs) due to metallurgical processing for silver production during periods of the Tiwanaku/Wari culture (AD 450–950), the Inca empires (AD 1450–1532), colonial times (AD 1532–1900), and tin production at the beginning of the 20th century. After the 1960s, Pb EFs increased by a factor of 3 compared to the emission level from metal production, which we attribute to gasoline-related Pb emissions. Our results show that anthropogenic Pb pollution levels from road traffic in South America exceed those of any historical metallurgy in the last two millennia, even in regions with exceptional high local metallurgical activity.

Palaeo-geoecological significance of Pleistocene trees in the Lluta Valley, Atacama Desert

In the Lluta Valley, northern Chile, climate is hyperarid and vegetation is restricted to the valley floors and lowermost footslopes. Fossil tree trunks and leaves of predominantly Escallonia angustifolia, however, are abundant up to ∼15 m above the present valley floor, where they are intercalated with slope deposits, reflecting higher water levels in the past. A total of 17 samples have been radiocarbon dated, yielding ages between 38 and 15k cal a BP. The youngest ages of 15.4k cal a BP are interpreted as reflecting the beginning of river incision and lowering of the valley floor, impeding the further growth of trees at higher parts of the slopes. The most plausible scenario for this observation is intensified river incision after 15.4k cal a BP due to increased stream power and runoff from the Río Lluta headwaters in the Western Cordillera and Altiplano corresponding to the highstand of the Tauca and Central Andean Pluvial Event (CAPE) wet phase.