Impairments of peripheral motion change detection during smooth pursuit eye movements

Introduction: In team sports the ability to use peripheral vision is essential to track a number of players and the ball. By using eye-tracking devices it was found that players either use fixations and saccades to process information on the pitch or use smooth pursuit eye movements (SPEM) to keep track of single objects (Sch��tz, Braun, & Gegenfurtner, 2011). However, it is assumed that peripheral vision can be used best when the gaze is stable while it is unknown whether motion changes can be equally well detected when SPEM are used especially because contrast sensitivity is reduced during SPEM (Sch��tz, Delipetkose, Braun, Kerzel, & Gegenfurtner, 2007). Therefore, peripheral motion change detection will be examined by contrasting a fixation condition with a SPEM condition. Methods: 13 participants (7 male, 6 female) were presented with a visual display consisting of 15 white and 1 red square. Participants were instructed to follow the red square with their eyes and press a button as soon as a white square begins to move. White square movements occurred either when the red square was still (fixation condition) or moving in a circular manner with 6 ��/s (pursuit condition). The to-be-detected white square movements varied in eccentricity (4 ��, 8 ��, 16 ��) and speed (1 ��/s, 2 ��/s, 4 ��/s) while movement time of white squares was constant at 500 ms. 180 events should be detected in total. A Vicon-integrated eye-tracking system and a button press (1000 Hz) was used to control for eye-movements and measure detection rates and response times. Response times (ms) and missed detections (%) were measured as dependent variables and analysed with a 2 (manipulation) x 3 (eccentricity) x 3 (speed) ANOVA with repeated measures on all factors. Results: Significant response time effects were found for manipulation, F(1,12) = 224.31, p < .01, ��p2 = .95, eccentricity, F(2,24) = 56.43; p < .01, ��p2 = .83, and the interaction between the two factors, F(2,24) = 64.43; p < .01, ��p2 = .84. Response times increased as a function of eccentricity for SPEM only and were overall higher than in the fixation condition. Results further showed missed events effects for manipulation, F(1,12) = 37.14; p < .01, ��p2 = .76, eccentricity, F(2,24) = 44.90; p < .01, ��p2 = .79, the interaction between the two factors, F(2,24) = 39.52; p < .01, ��p2 = .77 and the three-way interaction manipulation x eccentricity x speed, F(2,24) = 3.01; p = .03, ��p2 = .20. While less than 2% of events were missed on average in the fixation condition as well as at 4�� and 8�� eccentricity in the SPEM condition, missed events increased for SPEM at 16 �� eccentricity with significantly more missed events in the 4 ��/s speed condition (1 ��/s: M = 34.69, SD = 20.52; 2 ��/s: M = 33.34, SD = 19.40; 4 ��/s: M = 39.67, SD = 19.40). Discussion: It could be shown that using SPEM impairs the ability to detect peripheral motion changes at the far periphery and that fixations not only help to detect these motion changes but also to respond faster. Due to high temporal constraints especially in team sports like soccer or basketball, fast reaction are necessary for successful anticipation and decision making. Thus, it is advised to anchor gaze at a specific location if peripheral changes (e.g. movements of other players) that require a motor response have to be detected. In contrast, SPEM should only be used if a single object, like the ball in cricket or baseball, is necessary for a successful motor response. References: Sch��tz, A. C., Braun, D. I., & Gegenfurtner, K. R. (2011). Eye movements and perception: A selective review. Journal of Vision, 11, 1-30. Sch��tz, A. C., Delipetkose, E., Braun, D. I., Kerzel, D., & Gegenfurtner, K. R. (2007). Temporal contrast sensitivity during smooth pursuit eye movements. Journal of Vision, 7, 1-15.

Professionalisation of sport federations ��� A multi-level framework for analysing forms, causes and consequences

Research question: International and national sport federations as well as their member organisations are key actors within the sport system and have a wide range of relationships outside the sport system (e.g. with the state, sponsors, and the media). They are currently facing major challenges such as growing competition in top-level sports, democratisation of sports with ���sports for all��� and sports as the answer to social problems. In this context, professionalising sport organisations seems to be an appropriate strategy to face these challenges and current problems. We define the professionalisation of sport organisations as an organisational process of transformation leading towards organisational rationalisation, efficiency and business-like management. This has led to a profound organisational change, particularly within sport federations, characterised by the strengthening of institutional management (managerialism) and the implementation of efficiency-based management instruments and paid staff. Research methods: The goal of this article is to review the current international literature and establish a global understanding of and theoretical framework for analysing why and how sport organisations professionalise and what consequences this may have. Results and findings: Our multi-level approach based on the social theory of action integrates the current concepts for analysing professionalisation in sport federations. We specify the framework for the following research perspectives: (1) forms, (2) causes and (3) consequences, and discuss the reciprocal relations between sport federations and their member organisations in this context. Implications: Finally, we work out a research agenda and derive general methodological consequences for the investigation of professionalisation processes in sport organisations.

Motivational profiles of sporting event volunteers

This article presents an approach for segmenting sporting event volunteers according to differences in their motives. Empirical data were obtained from a sample of 1169 volunteers who registered for the 2014 European Athletics Championships in Z��rich. They completed the ���Volunteer Motivation Scale for International Sporting Events��� (VMS-ISE) questionaire. The validity of the VMS-ISE was replicated by confirmatory factor analysis and the data were cluster analysed to identify distinct motivation-based volunteer profiles. These segmented volunteers on the basis of mutually exclusive motivational characteristics. The external validity of the four motivation-based types (���community supporters���, ���material incentive seekers���, ���social networkers��� and ���career and personal growth orienteers���) was confirmed with socio-economic, sport-related and volunteer activity-related variables. It is concluded that motivation-based segmentation represents a useful way of gaining a clearer understanding of the patterns underlying the heterogeneity of sporting events volunteers.

Sportwissenschaftliches Studium und Beruf in der Schweiz

Im Zuge der Ausdifferenzierung und Kommerzialisierung des Sports und der damit verbundenen Professionalisierung und Verberuflichung vieler Bereiche haben insbesondere au��erschulische sportbezogene Berufsfelder stark an Bedeutung gewonnen. Allerdings gibt es bislang nur wenige Studien, die sowohl die beruflichen Karriereverl��ufe von Absolventinnen und Absolventen sportwissenschaftlicher Studieng��nge aus lebenszeitlicher Perspektive als auch Ver��nderungen im Berufsfeld Sport aus zeithistorischer Perspektive standort��bergreifend analysieren. Dieses Buch zielt darauf ab, bestehende Forschungsl��cken in diesem Bereich f��r die Schweiz zu schlie��en. Die Ergebnisse der beiden Studien BASIS und BASIS Future, in denen Absolventenkohorten sportwissenschaftlicher Studieng��nge aller sportwissenschaftlichen Institute der Schweiz befragt wurden, geben Aufschluss dar��ber, in welchen Berufsfeldern die Absolventen eine Anstellung finden, wie die Berufskarrieren von Absolventen sportwissenschaftlicher Studieng��nge verlaufen, welche zeithistorischen Ver��nderungen sich im Berufsfeld Sport beobachten lassen und welche Determinanten einen wesentlichen Einfluss auf den Karriereverlauf haben. Die beiden Studien zeigen aber auch, dass die Attraktivit��t des Studienfaches Sportwissenschaft nicht automatisch bedeutet, dass in verschiedenen sportspezifischen Berufsfeldern tats��chlich eine gro��e Anzahl stabiler und gut bezahlter Arbeitspl��tze vorhanden ist.

Sport clubs in Europe. A cross-national comparative perspective

���This book presents an up-to-date portrait of the characteristics of sport clubs in various European countries and their role in society and the national sport system. Furthermore, it offers a cross-national comparative perspective of sport clubs in twenty European countries. Containing both empirical data and information on the political and historical backgrounds of sport clubs, the book is organized in three parts. First, the authors provide an overview of the theoretical approach of the book and a description of the framework used for the country chapters. Second, the country chapters, written by experts within the field, provide a systematic overview of the available information on sport clubs in each country. These chapters are structured to answer the following questions: (1) What is the position of sport clubs within the national sport structure? (2) Which role do they fulfil in policy and society? (3) What are their basic characteristics and what factors influence the development of sport clubs? The book is concluded with a systematic comparison of the participating countries with the purpose of forging a clear link between the functioning of policy systems, observed problems, and possible solutions, and with a future research agenda on sport clubs. In an era of increased collaboration between European states, sport provides a natural vehicle through which to compare changes in culture, economics, and policy across nations. Sport Clubs in Europe will appeal to scholars of nonprofit management, sports management and sports sociology as well as administrators and policy makers in the international sports community.

Development and voluntarism in football clubs

Volunteers are still the most important resource for amateur football clubs. However, stable voluntary engagement can no longer be granted. This difficulty is confirmed by existing research across various European countries. From a club management point of view, a detailed understanding of how to attract volunteers and retain them is becoming a high priority. The purpose of this study is (1) to analyse the influence of individual characteristics and corresponding organisational conditions on volunteering and (2) to examine the decision-making processes in relation to implement effective strategies for recruiting volunteers. To answer these questions, the current state of research is summarised and then a multi-level-framework is developed which is based on the structural-individualistic social theory. The individual and context factors for volunteering are estimated in different multi-level models based on a sample of n=1,434 sport club members from 36 sport clubs in Switzerland. Results indicate that volunteering is not just an outcome of individual characteristics such as lower workloads, higher income, children belonging to the sport club, longer club membership, or a strong commitment to the club. It is also influenced by club-specific structural conditions. Concerning decision-making processes an in-depth analysis of recruitment practices for volunteers was conducted in selected clubs (case study design). based on the garbage can model. The results show that systematically designed decision-making processes with a clear regulation of responsibilities seem to solve personnel problems more purposefully and more quickly. Based on the findings some recommendations for volunteer management in football clubs are worked out.

Dynamics of critical incidents with potentially violent outcomes involving ultra fans: an explorative study

This study examines incidents involving a tense atmosphere combined with higher risk of football fan violence. A systematic description of such critical incidents (CIs) identifying their risk factors and warning signs is yet lacking. This study looks beyond fans��� violent acts per se and focuses on CIs involving ultra fans with a potentially ��� but not necessarily ��� violent outcome. A preliminary study involving a focus group was conducted followed by a main study including eight case studies. The focus group comprised five professionals working with football fans who discussed CIs��� observable characteristics. Risk factors and warning signs were coded using content analysis, such as, ���arrest of a fan���. In the main study, people involved in actual CIs were interviewed to explore these phenomena in more depth. An integrated model of CIs��� dynamics, risk factors and warning signs was compiled using data gathered in both studies.

Evaluation of an inventory for the assessment of critical incidents involving football fans

Introduction: Fan violence is a frequent occurrence in Swiss football (Bundesamt f��r Polizei, 2015) leading to high costs for prevention and control (Mensch & Maurer, 2014). Various theories put forward an explanation of fan violence, such as the Elaborated Social Identity Model (Drury & Reicher, 2000)and the Aggravation Mitigation Model (Hylander & Guv��, 2010). Important observations from these theories are the multi-dimensional understanding of fan violence and the Dynamics occurring in the fan group. Nevertheless, none of them deal with critical incidents (CIs) which involve a tense atmosphere combined with a higher risk of fan violence. Schumacher Dimech, Brechb��hl and Seiler (2015) tackled this gap in research and explored CIs where 43 defining criteria were identified and compiled in an integrated model of CIs. The defining criteria were categorised in four higher-order themes ���antecedents��� (e.g. a documented history of fan rivalry), ���triggers��� (e.g. the arrest of a fan), ���reactions��� (e.g. fans masking themselves) and ���consequences��� (e.g. fans avoiding communication with fan social workers). Methods: An inventory based on this model is being developed including these 43 criteria. In an exploratory phase, this inventory was presented as an online questionnaire and was completed by 143 individuals. Three main questions are examined: Firstly, the individual items are tested using descriptive analyses. An item analysis is conducted to test reliability, item difficulty and discriminatory power. Secondly, the model���s four higher-order themes are tested using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Thirdly, differences between sub -groups are explored, such as gender and age-related differences. Results: Respondents rated the items��� importance as high and the quota of incomplete responses was not systematic. Two items were removed from the inventory because of low mean or a high rate of ���don���t know���-responses. EFA produced a six-factor solution grouping items into match-related factors, repressive measures, fans��� delinquent behaviour, intra-group behaviour, communication and control and inter-group factors. The item ���fans consume alcohol��� could not be ordered into any category but was retained since literature accentuates this factor���s influence on fan violence. Analyses examining possible differences between groups are underway. Discussion: Results exploring the adequacy of this inventory assessing defining criteria of CIs in football are promising and thus further evaluative investigation is recommended. This inventory can be used in two ways: as a standardised instrument of assessment for experts evaluating specific CIs and as an instrument for exploring differences in perception and assessment of a CI e.g. gender and age differences, differences between interest groups and stakeholders.