Sportmotorische Leistungsfähigkeit und schulische Leistung – Zum mediierenden Effekt der exekutiven Funktionen

Introduction: Die sportmotorische Leistungsfähigkeit (SMLF) hängt nicht nur positiv mit der körperlichen Gesundheit zusammen, sondern gilt auch als Prädiktor für die schulische Leistung (SL) (van der Niet, Hartmann, Smith, & Visscher, 2014). Um die Frage zu beantworten, wie denn zwei auf den ersten Blick so distale Merkmale zusammenhängen sollen, werden unterschiedliche erklärende Variablen diskutiert, wobei die kognitive Stimulationshypothese die exekutiven Funktionen (EF) als mediierende Variable im Zusammenhang zwischen SMLF und SL postuliert. Die Annahme hierbei ist, dass die mit komplexen motorischen Kontrollprozessen einhergehende kognitive Beanspruchung bei einem wiederholten Ausführen von nicht-automatisierten sportbezogenen Handlungen zu einer Aktivierung und somit Förderung der EF führt (Best, 2010). EF, verstanden als höhere kognitive Prozesse, die ein zielorientiertes und situationsangepasstes Handeln erlauben, sind für den schulischen Erfolg von zentraler Bedeutung und gleichzeitig wichtige Prädiktoren der SL (Diamond, 2013). Obwohl diese Mediation seit einigen Jahren in der Literatur diskutiert wird, wurde sie bis heute noch nicht mit Hilfe längsschnittlicher Daten geprüft. Daher wird im Folgenden der mediierende Effekt der EF im Zusammenhang zwischen SMLF und SL getestet. Methods: Im Rahmen der Studie Sport und Kognition 5.0 wurden insgesamt 237 Primarschulkinder (52.3% ♀; 11.31 ± 0.62 Jahre) zu drei Messzeitpunkten in ihrer SMLF (T1) und ihren EF (T2) getestet. Zusätzlich wurde die SL (T3) mittels objektiver Schulleistungstests (Mathematik und Deutsch) erhoben. Um die Hauptfragestellung zu prüfen, ob die SL vorwiegend mediiert über die EF durch die SMLF vorhergesagt werden kann, wurde eine bootstrapping-basierte Mediationsanalyse in AMOS 22 durchgeführt. Results: Das theoretisch abgeleitete Strukturgleichungsmodell (2 (22, N = 237) = 30.357, p = .110; CFI = .978) weist eine zufriedenstellende Anpassungsgüte auf. Erwartungsgemäss zerfällt der Zusammenhang innerhalb des Mediationsmodells zwischen der SMLF und der SL, alsbald die EF ins Modell aufgenommen werden (β = .16, p = .634). Sowohl der Zusammenhang zwischen der SMLF und den EF (β = .38, p = .039), als auch der Zusammenhang zwischen den EF und der SL fallen signifikant aus (β = .91, p = .001) und ergeben dabei eine volle Mediation über den indirekten (p = .021) und totalen Effekt (p = .001). Discussion/Conclusion: Die erstmals vorliegenden längsschnittlichen Daten bestätigen den Zusammenhang zwischen SMLF und SL bei einer Mediation über die EF und decken sich mit den, aus einem querschnittlichen Design stammenden, Befunden von van der Niet et al. (2014). Zur Steigerung der schulischen Leistung sollten zukünftige Schulsportinterventionen die SMLF von Kindern erhöhen und dabei die EF bei der Auswahl von sportlichen Aufgaben mitberücksichtigen. References: Best, J. R. (2010). Effects of physical activity on children’s executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Developmental Review, 30, 331-351. Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168. van der Niet, A. G., Hartmann, E., Smith, J. & Visscher, C. (2014). Modeling relationships between physical fitness, executive functioning, and academic achievement in primary school children. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 15(4), 319-325.

Ego depletion, attentional control, and decision making in sport

Objectives: Athletes differ at staying focused on performance and avoiding distraction. Drawing on the strength model of self-control we investigated whether athletes do not only differ inter-individually in their disposition of staying focused and avoiding distraction but also intra-individually in their situational availability of focused attention. Design/method: In the present experiment we hypothesized that basketball players (N = 40) who have sufficient self-control resources will perform relatively better on a computer based decision making task under distraction conditions compared to a group who's self-control resources have been depleted in a prior task requiring self-control. Results: The results are in line with the strength model of self-control by demonstrating that an athlete's capability to focus attention relies on the situational availability of self-control strength. Conclusions: The current results indicate that having sufficient self-control strength in interference rich sport settings is likely to be beneficial for decision making.

School-age children show a bias toward fantasy classifications after playing a platform game

We investigated the influence of playing a video game on children’s ability to distinguish between fantasy and reality. School-age children played a platform game for 15 min and then performed a fantasy/reality distinction task in which they were to judge whether images (from the platform game and from other games) were fantasy images or reality images. Unlike those in the control group (who played a memory game), the children in the experimental group showed a response bias toward mistakenly classifying reality images from the video game as fantasy images (as determined by means of an analysis based on signal detection theory). We conclude that playing the video game exerted a short-term influence on children’s ability to distinguish between fantasy and reality.

Explicit vs implicit affiliation motives predict different social behavior in sports competition

Objectives The present study investigated the predictive value of the explicit and implicit affiliation motive for social behavior in sport competitions. From an information processing perspective, an explicit motive is linked to verbal cues and respondent behavior. The implicit motive in turn is linked to nonverbal stimuli and operant behavior (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989; Schultheiss, 2008). Both respondent affiliative behavior (e.g., verbal interactions with teammates) and operant nonverbal social behavior (e.g., pleasant to opponents) can be observed in racquet sports team competitions. Design & Methods Fifty-two male racquet sportsmen completed the Personality Research Form (explicit affiliation motive) and the Operant Motive Test (implicit affiliation motive). Motive measures were used to predict social behavior during competitions using multiple regression analyses. To this aim real competitive matches were videotaped and analyzed. Results Results show that the explicit affiliation motive is associated with time spent in verbal team contact. The implicit affiliation motive, by contrast, is linked to pleasant nonverbal behavior shown toward opponents. Conclusions Findings suggest that implicit and explicit affiliation motives predict different kinds of social behavior in sports competition respectively. Indirect motive measures may be of additional predictive value for different behavior in real sports settings.

Coaches` subjective talent criteria in top-level soccer

Introduction: In professional soccer, talent selection relies on the subjective judgment of scouts and coaches. To date, little is known about coaches´ “eye for talent” (Christensen, 2009, p. 379) and the nature of the subjective criteria they use to identify those players with the greatest potential to achieve peak performance in adulthood (Williams & Reilly, 2000). Drawing on a constructivist approach (Kelly, 1991), this study explores coaches´ subjective talent criteria. It is assumed that coaches are able to verbalise and specify their talent criteria, and that these are related to their talent selection decisions based on instinct. Methods: Participants and generation of data. Five national youth soccer coaches (Mage = 55.6; SD = 5.03) were investigated at three appointments: (1) talent selection decision based on instinct, (2) semi-structured inductive interview to elicit each coaches´ talent criteria in detail, (3) communicative validation and evaluation of the players by each coach using the repertory grid technique (Fromm, 2004). Data Analysis: Interviews were transcribed and summarized with regard to each specified talent criterion. Each talent criterion was categorized using a bottom-up-approach (meaning categorization, Kvale, 1996). The repertory grid data was analysed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. Results and Discussion: For each coach, six to nine talent criteria were elicited and specified. The subjective talent criteria include aspects of personality, cognitive perceptual skills, motor abilities, development, technique, social environment and physical constitution, which shows that the coaches use a multi-dimensional concept of talent. However, more than half of all criteria describe personality characteristics, in particular achievement motivation, volition and self-confidence. In contrast to Morris (2000), this result shows that coaches have a differentiated view of the personality characteristics required to achieve peak performance. As an indication of criterion validity, moderate to high correlations (.57 ≤ r ≤ .81) are found between the evaluations of the players according to the coaches´ talent criteria and their talent selection decision. The study shows that coaches are able to specify their subject talent criteria and that those criteria are strongly related to their instinctive selection decisions. References: Christensen, M. K. (2009). "An Eye for Talent": Talent Identification and the "Practical Sense" of Top-Level Soccer Coaches. Sociology of Sport Journal, 26, 365–382. Fromm, M. (2004). Introduction to the Repertory Grid Interview. Münster: Waxmann. Kelly, G. A. (1991). The Psychology of Personal Constructs: Volume One: Theory and personality. London: Routledge. Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews: An introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Morris, T. (2000). Psychological characteristics and talent identification in soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 715–726. Williams, A. M., & Reilly, T. (2000). Talent identification and development in soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 657–667.

Is ego depletion associated with increased distractibility? Results from a basketball free throw task

Objectives: It has been repeatedly demonstrated that athletes in a state of ego depletion do not perform up to their capabilities in high pressure situations. We assume that momentarily available self-control strength determines whether individuals in high pressure situations can resist distracting stimuli. Design/method: In the present study, we applied a between-subjects design, as 31 experienced basketball players were randomly assigned to a depletion group or a non-depletion group. Participants performed 30 free throws while listening to statements representing worrisome thoughts (as frequently experienced in high pressure situations) over stereo headphones. Participants were instructed to block out these distracting audio messages and focus on the free throws. We postulated that depleted participants would be more likely to be distracted. They were also assumed to perform worse in the free throw task. Results: The results supported our assumption as depleted participants paid more attention to the distracting stimuli. In addition, they displayed worse performance in the free throw task. Conclusions: These results indicate that sufficient levels of self-control strength can serve as a buffer against distracting stimuli under pressure.

Ego depletion and action initiation

Optimal sprint start performance requires the self-control of responses. Therefore, start performance should depend on self-control strength. It was expected that momentary depletion of self-control strength (ego depletion) would slow down the initiation of a sprint start, resulting in impaired reaction times. N = 37 participants performed three sprint starts at T1 and the average reaction times were measured with a foot-pressure release system attached under the starting block (in ms). Next, participants were randomly assigned to a depletion or a non-depletion condition and self-control strength was experimentally manipulated by applying the transcription task. Following the depletion manipulation, participants performed another series of three sprints (T2). The results of a mixed between (ego depletion: yes vs. no) within (T1 vs. T2) ANOVA supported the hypothesis as average reaction times in the depletion condition significantly increased from T1 (M = 0.35, SD = 0.03) to T2 (M = 0.38, SD = 0.04), F(1, 35) = 6.77, p = .01, η2p = .16. Average reaction times in the non-depletion condition did not differ significantly between T1 (M = 0.36, SD = 0.03) and T2 (M = 0.35, SD = 0.04), F(1, 35) = 0.47, p = .50, η2p = .01. In line with the hypothesis, higher levels of self-control strength were associated with quicker movement initiations. Therefore, improving self-control strength may serve as a buffer against the negative effects of ego depletion on performance.

Teacher emotions in the classroom: Associations with students’ engagement, classroom discipline and the interpersonal teacher-student relationship

The present study explores teacher emotions, in particular how they are predicted by students’ behaviour and the interpersonal aspect of the teacher-student relationship (TSR). One hundred thirty-two secondary teachers participated in a quantitative study relying on self-report questionnaire data. Based on the model of teacher emotions by Frenzel (2014), teachers rated their experienced joy, anger and anxiety during classroom instruction (dependent variable). Students’ motivational behaviour (= engagement), socio-emotional behaviour (= discipline in class) and relational behaviour (= closeness; interpersonal TSR) were assessed as the independent variables. Teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs served as a control variable. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that the interpersonal relationship formed between teachers and students was the strongest predictor for teachers’ joy (positive relation) and anxiety (negative relation), whereas lack of discipline in class best predicted teachers’ anger experiences. Students’ engagement also proved a significant predictor of teacher emotions. The results suggest that interpersonal TSR plays a particularly important role in teachers’ emotional experiences in class.

Sportmotorische Leistungsfähigkeit und schulische Leistung – Zum mediierenden Effekt der exekutiven Funktionen

Die sportmotorische Leistungsfähigkeit (SMLF) gilt in jüngster Zeit als ein Prädiktor für schulische Leistung (SL) (Diamond, 2013). Um die Frage zu beantworten, wie denn zwei auf den ersten Blick so distale Merkmale zusammenhängen sollen, werden unterschiedliche erklärende Variablen diskutiert, wobei die kognitive Stimulationshypothese die exekutiven Funktionen (EF) als mediierende Variable im Zusammenhang zwischen SMLF und SL postuliert. Die Annahme hierbei ist, dass die mit komplexen motorischen Kontrollprozessen einhergehende kognitive Beanspruchung bei einem wiederholten Ausführen von nicht-automatisierten sportbezogenen Handlungen zu einer Aktivierung und somit Förderung der EF führt (Best, 2010). Der mediierende Effekt der EF im Zusammenhang zwischen der SMLF und der SL wird seit einigen Jahren in der Literatur diskutiert und wird im Folgenden innerhalb einer längsschnittlichen Untersuchung getestet. Im Rahmen der Studie SpuK wurden 237 Primarschulkinder (52.3% ♀; 11.31 ± 0.62 Jahre) zu drei Messzeitpunkten in ihrer SMLF (T1) und ihren EF (T2) getestet. Zur Ermittlung der SMLF wurden drei sportmotorische Tests in den Bereichen Koordination, Ausdauer und Schnellkraft durchgeführt. Die EF Inhibition, kognitive Flexibilität und Arbeitsgedächtnis wurden computerbasiert über den N-Back- und Flanker-Test operationalisiert. Zusätzlich wurde die SL (T3) mittels objektiver Schulleistungstests erhoben. Um die Hauptfragestellung zu prüfen, wurde eine bootstrapping basierte Mediationsanalyse in AMOS durchgeführt. Das Strukturgleichungsmodell (2 (22, N=237)=30.357, p=.110; CFI=.978) weist eine zufriedenstellende Anpassungsgüte auf. Erwartungsgemäss zerfällt der Zusammenhang innerhalb des Mediationsmodells zwischen der SMLF und der SL, alsbald die EF ins Modell aufgenommen werden (β=.16, p= .634). Sowohl der Zusammenhang zwischen der SMLF und den EF (β=.38, p= .039), als auch der Zusammenhang zwischen den EF und der SL fallen signifikant aus (β=.91, p=.001) und ergeben dabei eine volle Mediation über den indirekten (p=.021) und totalen Effekt (p=.001). Die vorliegenden längs-schnittlichen Daten bestätigen den Zusammenhang zwischen SMLF und SL bei einer Mediation über die EF und bestätigen somit die aus querschnittlichem Design stammenden Resultate von van der Niet et al. (2014). Literatur Best, J. R. (2010). Effects of physical activity on children’s executive function: Contributions of ex-perimental research on aerobic exercise. Developmental Review, 30, 331-351. Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168. van der Niet, A. G., Hartmann, E., Smith, J. & Visscher, C. (2014). Modeling relationships between physical fitness, executive functioning, and academic achievement in primary school chil-dren. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 15(4), 319-325.