The Hidden World of Multilateralism? Treaty Commitments of Newly Democratized States in Europe

Why do new EU democracies engage in multilateralism? The dominant explanation proposes that new democracies use international treaties to lock in domestic reforms. This article offers a novel explanation as to why new EU democracies participate in multilateral treaties. We argue that ratifying a treaty serves three external signaling purposes (addressing recognition concerns; increasing strategic autonomy, and pleasing the EU). We test our argument through a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods. First, we apply event history analysis. Drawing on a new ratification data set comprising 76 multilateral treaties, we illustrate the prominent role of new EU democracies in multilateralism as compared to other new democracies. Second, to assess the importance of external signaling in the decision to ratify multilateral treaties, we examine parliamentary ratification debates in selected Central and Eastern European countries. Third, we compare parliamentary discussions across European and non-European new democracies to demonstrate the different motives driving their approaches toward multilateralism.

A 170 year spring phenology index of plants in eastern China

Extending phenological records into the past is essential for the understanding of past ecological change and evaluating the effects of climate change on ecosystems. A growing body of historical phenological information is now available for Europe, North America, and Asia. In East Asia, long-term phenological series are still relatively scarce. This study extracted plant phenological observations from old diaries in the period 1834–1962. A spring phenology index (SPI) for the modern period (1963–2009) was defined as the mean flowering time of three shrubs (first flowering of Amygdalus davidiana and Cercis chinensis, 50% of full flowering of Paeonia suffruticosa) according to the data availability. Applying calibrated transfer functions from the modern period to the historical data, we reconstructed a continuous SPI time series across eastern China from 1834 to 2009. In the recent 30 years, the SPI is 2.1–6.3 days earlier than during any other consecutive 30 year period before 1970. A moving linear trend analysis shows that the advancing trend of SPI over the past three decades reaches upward of 4.1 d/decade, which exceeds all previously observed trends in the past 30 year period. In addition, the SPI series correlates significantly with spring (February to April) temperatures in the study area, with an increase in spring temperature of 1°C inducing an earlier SPI by 3.1 days. These shifts of SPI provide important information regarding regional vegetation-climate relationships, and they are helpful to assess long term of climate change impacts on biophysical systems and biodiversity.

Palaeoenvironmental changes in Central Europe (NE Poland) during the last 6200 years reconstructed from a high-resolution multi-proxy peat archive

Peat deposits from an ombrotrophic bog (north-eastern Poland) were analysed to reconstruct peatland development and environmental changes. This paper presents reconstructions of hydrological changes and plant succession over the last 6000 years. The methods included the high-resolution analysis of plant macrofossils, pollen and testate amoebae, supported by radiocarbon dating. Three main phases were identified in the history of the bog and surrounding woodland vegetation: 4000–400 BC, 400 BC–AD 1700 and AD 1700–2011. Except for terrestrialisation and the fen-to-bog transition phase, the development of bog vegetation was mainly dependent on the climate until approximately AD 1700. The dominant taxon in Gązwa bog was Sphagnum fuscum/rubellum. Woodland development was significantly affected by human activity at several time periods. The most visible human activity, manifested by the decline of deciduous species, occurred ca. 350 BC, ca. AD 250, ca. AD 1350 and after AD 1700. These events correspond to phases of human settlement in the area. During 400–300 BC, the decline of deciduous trees, primarily Carpinus, coincided with an increase in indicators of human activity and fire frequency. At ca. AD 200, Carpinus and Tilia abundance decreased, corresponding to an increased importance of cereals (Secale and Triticum). Since ca. AD 1350, the impact of Teutonic settlement is apparent, and after AD 1700, deciduous forests largely disappeared.

Major differences in organization and availability of health care and medicines for HIV/TB coinfected patients across Europe

OBJECTIVES The aim of the study was to investigate the organization and delivery of HIV and tuberculosis (TB) health care and to analyse potential differences between treatment centres in Eastern (EE) and Western Europe (WE). METHODS Thirty-eight European HIV and TB treatment centres participating in the TB:HIV study within EuroCoord completed a survey on health care management for coinfected patients in 2013 (EE: 17 respondents; WE:21; 76% of all TB:HIV centres). Descriptive statistics were obtained for regional comparisons. The reported data on health care strategies were compared with actual clinical practice at patient level via data derived from the TB:HIV study. RESULTS Respondent centres in EE comprised: Belarus (n = 3), Estonia (1), Georgia (1), Latvia (1), Lithuania (1), Poland (4), Romania (1), the Russian Federation (4) and Ukraine (1); those in WE comprised: Belgium (1), Denmark (1), France (1), Italy (7), Spain (2), Switzerland (1) and UK (8). Compared with WE, treatment of HIV and TB in EE are less often located at the same site (47% in EE versus 100% in WE; P < 0.001) and less often provided by the same doctors (41% versus 90%, respectively; P = 0.002), whereas regular screening of HIV-infected patients for TB (80% versus 40%, respectively; P = 0.037) and directly observed treatment (88% versus 20%, respectively; P < 0.001) were more common in EE. The reported availability of rifabutin and second- and third-line anti-TB drugs was lower, and opioid substitution therapy (OST) was available at fewer centres in EE compared with WE (53% versus 100%, respectively; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Major differences exist between EE and WE in relation to the organization and delivery of health care for HIV/TB-coinfected patients and the availability of anti-TB drugs and OST. Significant discrepancies between reported and actual clinical practices were found in EE.

Larix decidua and other larches in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats

The European larch (Larix decidua Mill.) is a pioneer, very long-lived, fast-growing coniferous tree, which occurs in the central and eastern mountains of Europe, forming open forests or pasture woods at the upper tree limits. Larch is the only deciduous conifer in Europe as an adaptation to continental alpine climates. In fact, it is able to tolerate very cold temperatures during winter and, by losing its needles, avoids foliage desiccation. It is a transitional species, colonising open terrain after natural disturbances. It forms pure stands but more often it is found with other alpine tree species, which tend to replace it if no other disturbances occur. Thanks to its adaptability and the durability of its wood, the European larch represents an important silvicultural tree species in the alpine regions, planted even outside its natural ranges. Its wood is largely used for carpentry, furniture and pulp for paper. In lower altitudes or with high precipitation rates, larch is more susceptible to fungal diseases. Outbreaks of insect defoliators, principally caused by the larch bud moth (Zeiraphera diniana), can limit tree development, with economic losses in plantations, but they rarely lead to the death of the trees.

A first chironomid-based summer temperature reconstruction (13–5 ka BP) around 49°N in inland Europe compared with local lake development

Temperature reconstructions for the end of the Pleistocene and the first half of the Holocene based on biotic proxies are rare for inland Europe around 49°N. We analysed a 7 m long sequence of lake deposits in the Vihorlat Mts in eastern Slovakia (820 m a.s.l.). Chironomid head capsules were used to reconstruct mean July temperature (TJuly), other proxies (diatoms, green algae, pollen, geochemistry) were used to reconstruct local environmental changes that might have affected the climate reconstruction, such as epilimnetic total phosphorus concentrations (TP), lake level changes and development of surrounding vegetation. During the Younger Dryas (YD), temperature fluctuated between 7 and 11 °C, with distinct, decadal to centennial scale variations, that agree with other palaeoclimate records in Europe such as δ18O content in stalagmites or Greenland ice cores. The results indicate that the site was somewhat colder than expected from the general south-to-north YD temperature gradient within Europe, possibly because of north-facing exposition. The warmer phases of the YD were characterised by low water level or even complete desiccation of the lake (12,200-12,400 cal yr BP). At the Late-Glacial/Holocene transition TJuly steeply increased from from 11 to 15.5 °C (11,700-11,400 cal yr BP) - the highest TJuly for entire sequence. This rapid climate change was reflected by all proxies as a compositional change and increasing species diversity. The open woodlands of Pinus, Betula, Larix and Picea were replaced by broad-leaved temperate forests dominated by Betula, later by Ulmus and finally by Corylus (ca 9700 cal yr BP). At the same time, input of eroded coarse-grained material into the lake decreased and organic matter (LOI) and biogenic silica increased. The Early-Holocene climate was rather stable till 8700 cal yr BP, with temporary decrease in TJuly around 11,200 cal yr BP. The lake was productive with a well-developed littoral, as indicated by both diatoms and chironomids. A distinct decline of TJuly to 10 °C between 8700 and 8000 cal yr BP was associated with decreasing chironomid diversity and increasing climate moistening indicated by pollen. Tychoplanktonic and phosphorus-demanding diatoms increased which might be explained by hydrological and land-cover changes. Later, a gradual warming started after 7000 cal yr BP and representation of macrophytes, periphytic diatoms and littoral chironomids increased. Our results suggest that the Holocene thermal maximum was taking place unusually early in the Holocene at our study site, but its timing might be affected by topography and mesoclimate. We further demonstrated that temperature changes had coincided with variations in local hydrology